Near-Infrared BODIPY-Acridine Dyads Acting as Heavy-Atom-Free Dual-Functioning Photosensitizers.

Boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY) dyes represent a particular class within the broad array of potential photosensitizers. Their highly fluorescent nature opens the door for theragnostic applications, combining imaging and therapy using a single, easily synthesized chromophore. However, near-infrared absorption is strongly desired for photodynamic therapy to enhance tissue penetration. Furthermore, singlet oxygen should preferentially be generated without the incorporation of heavy atoms, as these often require additional synthetic efforts and/or afford dark cytotoxicity. Solutions for both problems are known, but have never been successfully combined in one simple BODIPY material. Here, we present a series of compact BODIPY-acridine dyads, active in the phototherapeutic window and showing balanced brightness and phototoxic power. Although the donor-acceptor design was envisioned to introduce a charge transfer state to assist in intersystem crossing, quantum-chemical calculations refute this. Further photophysical investigations suggest the presence of exciplex states and their involvement in singlet oxygen formation.

Absorption and Fluorescence Features of an Amphiphilic meso-Pyrimidinylcorrole: Experimental Study and Quantum Chemical Calculations.

Corroles are emerging as an important class of macrocycles with numerous applications because of their peculiar photophysical and metal chelating properties. meso-Pyrimidinylcorroles are easily deprotonated in certain solvents, which changes their absorption and emission spectra as well as their accessible supramolecular structures. To enable control over the formation of supramolecular structures, the dominant corrole species, i.e., the deprotonated form or one of the two NH-tautomers, needs to be identified. Therefore, we focus in the present article on the determination of the UV-vis spectroscopic properties of the free-base NH-tautomers and the deprotonated form of a new amphiphilic meso-pyrimidinylcorrole that can assemble to supramolecular structures at heterointerfaces as utilized in the Langmuir-Blodgett and liquid-liquid interface precipitation techniques. After quantification of the polarities of the free-base NH-tautomers and the deprotonated form by means of quantum chemically derived electrostatic potential distributions at the corroles' van der Waals surfaces, the preferential stabilization of (some of) the considered species in solvents of different polarity is identified by means of absorption spectroscopy. For the solutions with complex mixtures of species, we applied fluorescence excitation spectroscopy to estimate the relative weights of the individual corrole species. This technique might also be applied to identify dominating species in molecularly thin films directly on the subphase' surface of Langmuir-Blodgett troughs. Supported by quantum chemical calculations we were able to differentiate between the spectral signatures of the individual NH-tautomers by means of fluorescence excitation spectroscopy.

Origin of the Individual Basicity of Corrole NH-Tautomers: A Quantum Chemical Study on Molecular Structure and Dynamics, Kinetics, and Thermodynamics.

Free-base corroles exist as individual NH-tautomers that may differ in their spectral and chemical properties. The present paper focuses on the origin of the basicity difference between two AB2-pyrimidinylcorrole NH-tautomers, which has been tentatively attributed to differences in the weak out-of-plane distortions of the pyrrolenic ring between two NH-tautomers. Using DFT-geometry optimizations, we show that the pyrroles involved in the NH-tautomerization process are approximately in-plane, whereas the other two pyrroles are tilted out-of-plane in opposite directions. Alternative out-of-plane distortion patterns play a minor role, as revealed by ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. Given that the protonated corrole is a unique species, the energy difference between the two NH-tautomers equals the difference in protonation driving force between them. This energy difference increases with improved theoretical level of accounting for intermolecular interactions and dielectric screening of surface charges. The different charge distributions of the two NH-tautomers result in electrostatic potential distributions that effect a larger proton attraction in the case of the T1 tautomer than in the case of the T2 tautomer. In summary, our quantum chemical results show clearly a higher basicity of the T1 tautomer as compared to the T2 tautomer: The previously assumed pronounced out-of-plane tilt of the T1-nonprotonated nitrogen is verified by ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. Together with analysis of the electrostatic potential distribution we show that the nonprotonated nitrogen is not only tilted stronger but also significantly more accessible for protons in the case of T1 as compared to T2. Additionally, the thermodynamic basicity is higher for T1 than for T2.

Quantum chemical insights into the dependence of porphyrin basicity on the meso-aryl substituents: thermodynamics, buckling, reaction sites and molecular flexibility.

The chemical and sensing properties of porphyrins are frequently tuned via the introduction of peripheral substituents. In the context of the exceptionally fast second protonation step in the case of 5,10,15,20-tetraphenylporphyrin (TPP), as compared to porphin and 5,10,15,20-tetramesitylporphyrin (TMesP), we investigated the macrocycle-substituent interactions of these three porphyrin derivatives in detail. Using quantum chemical thermodynamics calculations, the analysis of geometric structures, torsional profiles, electrostatic potential distributions, and particularly the analysis of molecular flexibilities via ab initio molecular dynamics simulations, we obtained a comprehensive picture of the reactivities of the studied porphyrins and how these are influenced by the meso-substituents. As compared to porphin and TMesP the second protonation of TPP is energetically more favorable and is particularly energetically comparable to its first protonation, instead of being significantly less favorable like in the case of porphyrin and TMesP. Additionally, the second TPP protonation is facilitated by an interplay between out-of-plane (oop) distortion of the protonation site and a pronounced electrostatic binding spot at the protonation site. Furthermore, the second protonation is particularly facilitated in the case of TPP by the large oop-flexibility of the diprotonated species as unraveled by ab initio molecular dynamics simulations.

Molecular structures and absorption spectra assignment of corrole NH tautomers.

The individual absorption spectra of the two NH tautomers of 10-(4,6-dichloropyrimidin-5-yl)-5,15-dimesitylcorrole are assigned on the basis of the Gouterman four-orbital model and a quantum chemical TD-DFT study. The assignment indicates that the red-shifted T1 tautomer is the one with protonated pyrrole nitrogen atoms N(21), N(22) and N(23), whereas the blue-shifted T2 tautomer has pyrrole nitrogen atoms N(21), N(22) and N(24) protonated. A wave-like nonplanar distortion of the macrocycle in the ground state is found for both NH tautomers, with the wave axis going through the pyrroles containing N(22) and N(24). The 7C plane determined by the least-squares distances to the carbon atoms C1, C4, C5, C6, C9, C16, and C19 is suggested as a mean corrole macrocycle plane for the analysis of out-of-plane distortions. The magnitude of these distortions is distinctly different for the two NH tautomers, leading to substantial perturbations of their acid-base properties, which are rationalized by the interplay of the degree of out-of-plane distortion of the macrocycle as a whole and the tendency of the pyrrole nitrogen atoms toward pyramidalization, with the former leading to a basicity increase whereas the latter enhances the acidity.

Corrole NH tautomers: spectral features and individual protonation.

Protonation of a free-base meso-pyrimidinyl-substituted AB(2)-corrole (H(3)AB(2)) in ethanol solution by stepwise addition of sulfuric acid has been studied in the temperature range from 293 to 333 K. The formation rate of protonated species was found to depend profoundly on the temperature at which the titration was undertaken. Two steps in the titration curve were identified at temperatures around 293-298 K, whereas one-step formation of protonated species was found to occur at temperatures above 308 K. The protonation product was the same in both cases, i.e., H(4)AB(2)(+) corrole, protonated at the macrocycle core nitrogen atoms. The two steps in the protonation kinetics at lower temperatures were attributed to protonation of individual tautomers of the free-base H(3)AB(2) corrole. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first well-illustrated (spectrophotometric) observation of individual properties of corrole NH tautomers in fluid solution. Concomitant increase in the NH tautomerization rate with increasing temperature is proposed to account for the one-step protonation. Evidences for the role of individual corrole NH tautomers in the protonation process as well as their optical features are discussed based on spectroscopic results and simulation data.

Unraveling the fluorescence features of individual corrole NH tautomers.

The fluorescence spectra of 10-(4,6-dichloropyrimidin-5-yl)-5,15-dimesitylcorrole have been studied in the temperature range from 4.2 to 332 K. For the first time, the individual fluorescence profiles of the two corrole NH tautomers have been assigned over the whole temperature range. The pronounced temperature dependence of the fluorescence spectra of the meso-pyrimidinylcorrole under study was found to originate from switching between the fluorescence emissions of the two tautomers due to a reduced NH tautomerization rate with decreasing temperature. As a result, the long wavelength tautomer dominates the total emission spectrum at room temperature, whereas at low temperatures, the majority of the emission comes from the short wavelength tautomer. Energy level diagrams (involving the two NH tautomers) explaining the excitation energy deactivation channels in the meso-pyrimidinylcorrole at room temperature and below are presented. A significant H/D isotope effect on the NH tautomerization rate has been observed, resulting in an enhanced contribution of the short wavelength tautomer to the total fluorescence spectrum at the expense of that of the long wavelength tautomer. Substantially different fluorescence quantum yields have been determined for the individual NH tautomers, leading to a pronounced temperature dependence of the overall fluorescence quantum yield. The obtained results allow the unambiguous statement that the two NH tautomers of corroles coexist in fluid and solid solutions in a wide range of temperatures, with the proportion depending on the corrole substitution pattern. Moreover, this study shows that the (future) interpretation of the fluorescence properties of meso-pyrimidinylcorroles and all other corrole materials should be done (more) carefully, taking into account the coexistence of NH tautomers with individual spectral signatures.

Solvent-dependent deprotonation of meso-pyrimidinylcorroles: absorption and fluorescence studies.

The absorption spectra of 10-(4,6-dichloropyrimidin-5-yl)-5,15-dimesitylcorrole have been studied in 15 solvents. The formation of deprotonated corrole species was found to account for the dramatic changes in the absorption spectra in several solvents. Careful analysis of the relationship between the formation of deprotonated species and solvent properties results in the conclusion that there is no single solvent parameter correlation, and either multiparameter correlations or specific solute-solvent interactions (preferential solvation of the most acidic NH tautomer or perturbation of intramolecular hydrogen bonding in the macrocycle core) should be considered. The fluorescence properties of the deprotonated pyrimidinylcorrole are also reported for the first time and compared to those of free-base and protonated species.

Structural volume changes upon triplet formation of water-soluble porphyrins depend on the resonant effect of the substituents.

Laser-induced optoacoustic spectroscopy was applied to evaluate the photoinduced structural volume changes upon triplet state formation, Δ(T)V, of an aqueous solution of 5,10,15,20-tetrakis-(4-carboxyphenyl)-porphin. Two molecular forms differing in the ionization state of the carboxylic groups at the para-position of the phenyl ring were studied. The contractions, Δ(T)V, for all water-soluble 5,10,15,20-tetra-aryl-porphyrin compounds studied to date show a linear correlation with the Hammett resonant σ(R) constant. This indicates that the resonance electronic communication spreading over the π-orbitals between the meso-aryl rings and the porphyrin macrocycle determines the molecular contraction of the aqueous sphere around the macrocycle in the triplet state.

Luminescence of meso-pyrimidinylcorroles: relationship with substitution pattern and heavy atom effects.

The luminescence properties of a series of corroles containing multiple meso-pyrimidinyl groups have been studied. In particular, nine corroles containing two pyrimidinyl moieties, four corroles containing three pyrimidinyl groups and one corrole carrying a single pyrimidinyl substituent have been investigated, and their properties have been compared with some model species. The results indicate that the energy of the emissive π-π* corrole-core-based state is not significantly perturbed by the various substituents, whereas the emission lifetimes and quantum yields depend on the number of appended meso-dichloropyrimidinyl substituents. In particular, both emission lifetime and quantum yield decrease with increasing the number of meso-dichloropyrimidinyl substituents, whereas pyrimidinyl substituents which do not carry further electron withdrawing groups such as the chlorine atoms do not affect the corrole emission properties. Two hypotheses are taken into consideration to rationalize the results: (i) the presence of meso-dichloropyrimidinyl substituents could introduce low-lying CT states which mix with the corrole π-π* emissive level, so reducing emission efficiency; (ii) the ortho,ortho'-chlorine groups of the meso-pyrimidinyl substituents, which lie in the proximity of the corrole macrocycle, can increase the intersystem crossing rate constant of the corrole-based fluorescent state via the heavy-atom effect. A comparison of the results of the studied corrole compounds with formerly investigated species and the linear dependence of the radiationless decay rate constants and emission quantum yields on the squared spin-orbit coupling constants, calculated considering the number of chlorine atoms in ortho-position of the corrole meso-substituents, suggest that hypothesis (ii) is most likely the valid one. These results are of particular interest for the design of (a) corrole compounds featuring highly efficient triplet formation and (b) multicomponent systems containing photo-active corrole subunits and pyrimidinyl spacers.

Acid-base equilibria in 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)chlorin: Role of conformational flexibility.

The acid-base equilibria in 5,10,15,20-tetrakis(4-sulfonatophenyl)chlorin were studied in aqueous solution and compared with the respective data for the corresponding porphyrin. The reduction of the pyrrole ring in the tetrapyrrolic macrocycle noticeably influences both free base/monoprotonated and mono-/diprotonated species equilibria. In strong acidic solutions protonation of 4-sulfonatophenyl groups takes place in addition to protonation of the macrocycle core. The photophysical properties of all ionic forms are influenced by an enhanced rate of internal S1 --> S0 conversion, leading to about 50% and 90% deactivation through this channel for the free base and diprotonated species, respectively. The enhancement of the rate of the radiationless transitions is explained by an increased conformational flexibility of the chlorin macrocycle with respect to that of a porphyrin. Structural volume change measurements with laser-induced optoacoustic spectroscopy support this explanation. The contraction upon triplet state formation of the free base is about one-half of that measured for the corresponding porphyrin. This contraction should be due to intramolecular structural rearrangements of the macrocycle to adopt a minimum energy conformation in case of the chlorin. On the contrary, for the more rigid porphyrin macrocycle the interactions of the molecule with the solvent environment play a more important role. The diprotonated forms of both porphyrin and chlorin show a high radiationless S1 --> S0 conversion rate and seem to have a similar conformational flexibility. In agreement with previous calculations, the conformational flexibility of the diprotonated forms appears to be higher than that of the free base molecule.