Microbial dissolution of hematite and associated cellular fossilization by reduced iron phases: a study of ancient microbe-mineral surface interactions.

We report here on magnetite- and wustite-encrusted and geometrically oriented microbial-like structures (MLS) attached to the surfaces of hematite (alpha-Fe(2)O(3)) crystals in a banded iron formation. Field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging showed a 3-D network of MLS arranged in 1 microm x approximately 20 microm coccoidal-like chains (CLC) of various geometrical shapes: dichotomous and budding-like protrusions, parallel, intersecting, triangular, or sinusoidal. Individual spheroidal forms ( approximately 1 mum in diameter), some displaying what appears to be division, were also abundant. In addition to their size, morphology, and preferred orientations, a microbial origin of these chains and single spheroidal forms is inferred by the presence of material that resembles extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) extending from the base of the chains along the mineral surface: the attachment sites show circular dissolution pits of about 100 nm diameter. Other thin structures protruding from the CLC are reminiscent of bacterial "nanowires." We were, however, unable to find any extant cells, organic carbon, or even recover DNA from the MLS, which suggests that they, if microbial, are possibly mineralogically replaced casts or mineral encrustations of cells. It is further speculated that, given the nature of the substrate upon which the forms are attached and their preferential orientations, it seems plausible that the "original cells" may have been Fe(III)-reducing bacteria that exploited structural imperfections in the crystal lattice. Importantly, the preservation of the ancient microbial shapes in mineral casts of magnetite, wustite, or both may be an overlooked means by which cellular features in the rock record are retained.

Hypersaline microbial systems of sabkhas: examples of life's survival in "extreme" conditions.

Life and living systems need several important factors to establish themselves and to have a continued tradition. In this article the nature of the borderline situation for microbial life under heavy salt stress is analyzed and discussed using the example of biofilms and microbial mats of sabkha systems of the Red Sea. Important factors ruling such environments are described, and include the following: (1) Microbial life is better suited for survival in extremely changing and only sporadically water-supplied environments than are larger organisms (including humans). (2) Microbial life shows extremely poikilophilic adaptation patterns to conditions that deviate significantly from conditions normal for life processes on Earth today. (3) Microbial life adapts itself to such extremely changing and only ephemerally supportive conditions by the capacity of extreme changes (a) in morphology (pleomorphy), (b) in metabolic patterns (poikilotrophy), (c) in survival strategies (poikilophily), and (d) by trapping and enclosing all necessary sources of energy matter in an inwardly oriented diffusive cycle. All this is achieved without any serious attempt at escaping from the extreme and extremely changing conditions. Furthermore, these salt swamp systems are geophysiological generators of energy and material reservoirs recycled over a geological time scale. Neither energy nor material is wasted for propagation by spore formation. This capacity is summarized as poikilophilic and poikilotroph behavior of biofilm or microbial mat communities in salt and irradiationstressed environmental conditions of the sabkha or salt desert type. We use mainly cyanobacteria as an example, although other bacteria and even eukaryotic fungi may exhibit the same potential of living and surviving under conditions usually not suitable for life on Earth. It may, however, be postulated that such poikilophilic organisms are the true candidates for life support and survival under conditions never recorded on Planet Earth. Mars and some planets of other suns may be good candidates to search for life under conditions normally not thought to be favorable for the maintenance of life.