Behavioral and neural responses to social exclusion in women: the role of facial attractiveness and friendliness.

The behavioral and neural responses to social exclusion were examined in women randomized to four conditions, varying in levels of attractiveness and friendliness. Informed by evolutionary theory, we predicted that being socially excluded by attractive unfriendly women would be more distressing than being excluded by unattractive women, irrespective of their friendliness level. Our results contradicted most of our predictions but provide important insights into women's responses to interpersonal conflict. Accounting for rejection sensitivity, P300 event-related potential amplitudes were largest when women were excluded by unattractive unfriendly women. This may be due to an expectancy violation or an annoyance with being excluded by women low on social desirability. An examination of anger rumination rates by condition suggests the latter. Only attractive women's attractiveness ratings were lowered in the unfriendly condition, indicating they were specifically punished for their exclusionary behavior. Women were more likely to select attractive women to compete against with one exception-they selected the Black attractive opponent less often than the White attractive opponent when presented as unfriendly. Finally, consistent with studies on retaliation in relation to social exclusion, women tended to rate competitors who rejected them as being more rude, more competitive, less attractive, less nice, and less happy than non-competitors. The ubiquity of social exclusion and its pointed emotional and physiological impact on women demands more research on this topic.

Social Media Friendship Jealousy.

A new measure to assess friendship jealousy in the context of social media was developed. This one-factor, seven-item measure was psychometrically sound, showing evidence of validity and reliability in three samples of North American adults (Study 1, n = 491; Study 2, n = 494; Study 3, n = 415) and one-, two-, and three-year stability (Study 3). Women reported more social media friendship jealousy than men (Studies 2 and 3) and younger women had the highest levels of social media friendship jealousy (compared with younger men and older men and women; Study 2). Social media friendship jealousy was associated with lower friendship quality (Study 1) and higher social media use and trait jealousy (Study 2). The relation between social media friendship jealousy and internalizing symptoms indicated positive within time associations and longitudinal bidirectional relations (Study 3). Specifically, social media friendship jealousy predicted increases in internalizing problems, and internalizing problems predicted greater social media friendship jealousy accounting for gender and trait levels of social media friendship jealousy and internalizing problems. Anxious and depressed adults may be predisposed to monitor threats to their friendships via social media and experience negative consequences because of this behavior. Although social media interactions can be associated with positive well-being and social connectedness, our results highlight that they can also undermine friendships and mental health due to jealousy.

Anxiety symptoms before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal examination of Canadian young adults.

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in many changes that may impact anxiety symptoms (i.e., general anxiety and somatization), particularly for young adults who were at higher risk for anxiety than older adults. We examined anxiety symptoms before (age 19, 20, 21, and 22) and during the pandemic (age 23 and 24) in a cohort of Canadian young adults (n = 396). Latent growth curve models were performed for general anxiety and somatization and the pandemic time points were estimated as structured residuals to quantify the change from participants' expected trajectories. We also examined whether fear of COVID-19 predicted the changes in anxiety symptoms during the pandemic. Results indicated that a history of general anxiety and somatization positively predicted fear of COVID-19 during the pandemic and negatively predicted pandemic change from predicted values for both general anxiety and somatization. Increased COVID-19 fear was related within time to increases in general anxiety at ages 23 and 24 and increases in somatization at age 24. We also found that the proportion of individuals in the subclinical/clinical range of somatization was higher from age 23-24, but not from age 22-23 and there were no differences for general anxiety. Results highlight the need to consider within-person change and development in evaluating anxiety symptom changes and predictors of changes in anxiety symptoms.

Bullying before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The rates of bullying during the COVID-19 pandemic, a time of unprecedented public health and social restrictions, were compared to earlier times when students attended school in person. Several studies indicated a notable decrease in the prevalence of bullying victimization and perpetration during the pandemic, particularly when online learning was implemented. But studies from countries with fewer social restrictions indicated increases in rates of bullying during the pandemic. Mixed results regarding prevalence rates for some bullying forms (e.g., cyberbullying) were also found. Racialized youth and LGBTQ+ youth reliably reported higher rates of bullying victimization during the pandemic, consistent with pre-pandemic patterns. Reasons for the inconsistencies in findings likely relate to diverse methods, timeframes, and sampling techniques, as well as different experiences with pandemic social restrictions. More longitudinal studies are needed to assess whether bullying involvement did in fact "change" during, compared to before, the pandemic. The findings point to the importance of peer relationships and hint at the potential of increased teacher supervision as a bullying prevention strategy.

Experiences of racial microaggression among immigrant and Canadian-born young adults: Effects of double stigma on mental health and service use.

BACKGROUND: Significant disparities in utilization of mental health services exist among immigrant and Canadian-born populations. These gaps may be associated with a 'double stigma' - stigma related to being from a racialized background exacerbated by mental health stigma. Immigrant young adults may be particularly susceptible to this phenomenon, given developmental and social transitions from adolescence to adulthood. AIMS: To investigate the joint effects of racial microaggression and mental health stigma on mental health and service use among first-generation immigrant and Canadian-born university students. METHOD: We conducted an online cross-sectional study among first-generation immigrant and Canadian-born university students (N = 1,280, Mage = 19.10, SD = 1.50). RESULTS: Despite no differences in anxiety or depression symptoms, first-generation (foreign-born) immigrants were less likely to have received therapy and to have taken medication for mental health issues compared to Canadian-born participants. First-generation immigrants also reported experiencing higher levels of racial microaggression and stigma toward service use. Results suggest the presence of a double stigma, mental health stigma and racial microaggression, each explained significant additional variance in symptoms of anxiety and depression and medication use. No effects of double stigma for therapy use were found - while higher mental health stigma predicted lower use of therapy, racial microaggression did not predict unique variance in therapy use. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight the joint effects of racial microaggression and stigma toward mental health and service as barriers to help-seeking among immigrant young adults. Mental health intervention and outreach programmes should target overt and covert forms of racial discrimination while incorporating culturally sensitive anti-stigma approaches to help reduce disparities in mental health service use among immigrants in Canada.

Bullying involvement and the transition to high school: A brief report.

School transitions are common educational experiences for children and adolescents and many of them worry about being bullied during this type of major life-changing point. In a sample of 701 Canadians assessed yearly from grade 5 (age 10) to grade 12 (age 18), we examined heterogeneous patterns of bullying involvement while statistically accounting for the transition into high school. Gender differences were also examined. Results indicated that on average, bullying victimization declined over time with a significant drop noted between grade 8 and grade 9 (the transition into high school), with few differences between girls and boys. Bullying perpetration also declined for most students (no gender differences), with a notable drop found at the transition into high school. However, for a subset of adolescents, the transition into high school was accompanied by an increase in bullying perpetration. These varied experiences highlight the need to model heterogeneity when examining the impact of school transitions on bullying, a neglected focus of inquiry to date. Our results suggest that moving into high school is beneficial for most adolescents involved in bullying, but not for all.

Elevated social anxiety symptoms across childhood and adolescence predict adult mental disorders and cannabis use.

AIM: We assessed the heterogeneous development of self-reported social anxiety symptoms across childhood and adolescence (ages 10 to 18; N = 701) and examined whether these groups predicted clinically derived diagnoses of social anxiety disorder (SAD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), depressive episodes, panic disorder (PD), agoraphobia, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), and substance use in adulthood (ages 19 to 22). RESULTS: Three distinct social anxiety symptom trajectories were found: a high increasing group (15.5%), a moderate group (37.3%), and a low group (47.2%). The high increasing and moderate trajectory groups were differentiated from the low trajectory group on the adult mental disorders examined: SAD (high OR = 15.74; moderate OR = 11.72), GAD (high OR = 13.08; moderate OR = 8.98), depressive episode (high OR = 19.75), PD (high OR = 8.43; moderate OR = 5.90), agoraphobia (high OR = 16.39; moderate OR = 9.68), and OCD (high OR = 3.49; moderate OR = 2.98). The high and moderate groups were not differentiated on SAD, GAD, PD, or OCD but were differentiated on depressive episodes (OR = 3.24). Relative to the low and moderate trajectory groups, the high increasing social anxiety symptoms trajectory group also predicted cannabis use, but not alcohol use in adulthood. Gender, ethnicity, household income, and parental education were accounted for when predicting adult outcomes. CONCLUSION: These results highlight the importance of early treatment of symptoms of childhood social anxiety in the prevention of mental health problems in adulthood.

School bullying before and during COVID-19: Results from a population-based randomized design.

We examined the impact of COVID-19 on bullying prevalence rates in a sample of 6578 Canadian students in Grades 4 to 12. To account for school changes associated with the pandemic, students were randomized at the school level into two conditions: (1) the pre-COVID-19 condition, assessing bullying prevalence rates retrospectively before the pandemic, and (2) the current condition, assessing rates during the pandemic. Results indicated that students reported far higher rates of bullying involvement before the pandemic than during the pandemic across all forms of bullying (general, physical, verbal, and social), except for cyber bullying, where differences in rates were less pronounced. Despite anti-Asian rhetoric during the pandemic, no difference was found between East Asian Canadian and White students on bullying victimization. Finally, our validity checks largely confirmed previous published patterns in both conditions: (1) girls were more likely to report being bullied than boys, (2) boys were more likely to report bullying others than girls, (3) elementary school students reported higher bullying involvement than secondary school students, and (4) gender diverse and LGTBQ + students reported being bullied at higher rates than students who identified as gender binary or heterosexual. These results highlight that the pandemic may have mitigated bullying rates, prompting the need to consider retaining some of the educational reforms used to reduce the spread of the virus that could foster caring interpersonal relationships at school such as reduced class sizes, increased supervision, and blended learning.

School climate, peer victimization, and academic achievement: results from a multi-informant study.

School-level school climate was examined in relation to self-reported peer victimization and teacher-rated academic achievement (grade point average; GPA). Participants included a sample of 1,023 fifth-grade children nested within 50 schools. Associations between peer victimization, school climate, and GPA were examined using multilevel modeling, with school climate as a contextual variable. Boys and girls reported no differences in victimization by their peers, although boys had lower GPAs than girls. Peer victimization was related to lower GPA and to a poorer perception of school climate (individual-level), which was also associated with lower GPA. Results of multilevel analyses revealed that peer victimization was again negatively associated with GPA, and that lower school-level climate was associated with lower GPA. Although no moderating effects of school-level school climate or sex were observed, the relation between peer victimization and GPA remained significant after taking into account (a) school-level climate scores, (b) individual variability in school-climate scores, and (c) several covariates--ethnicity, absenteeism, household income, parental education, percentage of minority students, type of school, and bullying perpetration. These findings underscore the importance of a positive school climate for academic success and viewing school climate as a fundamental collective school outcome. Results also speak to the importance of viewing peer victimization as being harmfully linked to students' academic performance.

Predicting borderline personality disorder symptoms in adolescents from childhood physical and relational aggression, depression, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Developmental cascade models linking childhood physical and relational aggression with symptoms of depression and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; assessed at ages 10, 11, 12, 13, and 14) to borderline personality disorder (BPD) features (assessed at age 14) were examined in a community sample of 484 youth. Results indicated that, when controlling for within-time covariance and across-time stability in the examination of cross-lagged relations among study variables, BPD features at age 14 were predicted by childhood relational aggression and symptoms of depression for boys, and physical and relational aggression, symptoms of depression, and symptoms of ADHD for girls. Moreover, for boys BPD features were predicted from age 10 ADHD through age 12 depression, whereas for girls the pathway to elevated BPD features at age 14 was from depression at age 10 through physical aggression symptoms at age 12. Controlling for earlier associations among variables, we found that for girls the strongest predictor of BPD features at age 14 was physical aggression, whereas for boys all the risk indicators shared a similar predictive impact. This study adds to the growing literature showing that physical and relational aggression ought to be considered when examining early precursors of BPD features.