Oral and Dental Examination Findings in European Polecats (Mustela putorius).

Dental and oral diseases in the domestic ferret have been reported, but comparison with their closest wild relative, the European polecat (Mustela putorius), is lacking. Dental and orofacial pathology was evaluated by means of visual examination and dental radiographical analysis of 234 museum skulls. Most of these (70.5%) originated from Austria and the remainder came from seven other European countries. Linguoverted mandibular second incisor teeth were noted in 77% of the skulls. There were 7,268 (91.4% of all potential) teeth available for examination. Few (0.3%) were presumed congenitally missing and 0.5% were presumed missing by acquired means. Supernumerary teeth were present in 2.6% of the skulls. Most (65.6%) of the maxillary first molar teeth were three rooted with the palatal root protruding into the orbit. Most (67.2%) of the mandibular first molar teeth were three rooted with the smaller third root being positioned in the furcation of the two larger roots. Thirty-one percent of the teeth were four rooted, with the smaller fourth root also being positioned in the furcation of the two largest roots. Attrition/abrasion was shown by 17.2% of the teeth in 47% of the skulls. Periodontitis was recognized in 57.6% of the teeth in 91.9% of the skulls and dental fractures were noted in 7.2% of the teeth in 62% of the skulls. Radiographical evidence of endodontic disease was found in 25% of the fractured teeth. Tooth resorption, in the form of external inflammatory resorption associated with endodontic disease, was found in 0.1% of teeth in 2.1% of skulls. Extrusion affected 44% of the canine teeth. Lesions consistent with infection by the helminth Troglotrema acutum were identified in 33.3% of the skulls. Oral and dental disease was significant and varied, often consistent with reports of the species domestic counterpart - the ferret. Comparison with other mustelids, notably the beech marten (Martes foina), showed both clear consistencies and discrepancies, dependent on the type of pathology.

Oral and Dental Examination Findings in Beech Martens (Martes foina).

Detailed clinical and radiographical descriptions of oral/dental pathology in the beech marten (Martes foina) are lacking. In the present study, skulls of M. foina from a museum collection (n = 109) were examined macroscopically according to predefined criteria and full-mouth dental radiographs were obtained. Occlusion was diagnosed as 'scissor bite' in 22.5% of evaluated skulls, 77% of evaluated skulls showed 'level bite' of incisors and 9.2% of evaluated skulls had 'open bites'. In three skulls, class III malocclusion was diagnosed. Linguoversion of the mandibular second incisor teeth was noted in all skulls. Of the maximum possible number of teeth (i.e. full set of teeth in each skull), 90.4% were available for examination, 6.4% were missing artifactually, 2.0% were absent presumably congenitally and in 1.2 % the absence was presumably acquired. In three skulls supernumerary teeth were noted, all being incisor teeth. In four skulls, unerupted maxillary canine teeth were noted and in one skull odontodysplasia of the maxillary canine teeth was diagnosed. All other teeth were considered normal in morphology. The number of roots per tooth varied in the mandibular second premolar, maxillary first molar and mandibular second molar teeth. The most common dental pathology was attrition/abrasion with 72 skulls (66%) and 857 teeth (24.1% of evaluated teeth) affected, followed by periodontal disease affecting 52 (47.7%) of skulls and 773 teeth (18.9% of evaluated teeth). Dental fractures were present in 49 (45%) skulls and 148 teeth (3.8% of evaluated teeth). Radiographically evident periapical lesions were detected in 11 (10.1%) skulls and 18 teeth (0.5% of evaluated teeth). Other rare abnormal findings included tooth resorption, enamel hypoplasia/hypocalcification, fenestrations at palatal root of maxillary first molar tooth and different bony changes.

Molecular systematics and evolutionary biogeography of the genus Talpa (Soricomorpha: Talpidae).

The range of the genus Talpa covers almost all Europe up to Western Asia. This genus has never been the object of comprehensive systematic studies using molecular and genetic techniques, such that the evolutionary relationships among species remain unclear. Talpa shows high levels of endemism, and the influence of past glaciation cycles on the distribution pattern of several species has been hypothesized. In this work, we assessed the molecular systematics of the genus using the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b from eight of the nine extant species of Talpa moles. Furthermore, molecular clock estimations were used to hypothesize a biogeographic scenario in concordance with fossil data. Results suggest a monophyletic origin of the genus and a common ancestor for the western European moles T. europaea, T. caeca, T. romana and T. occidentalis. The eastern species T. altaica and T. caucasica are basally divergent. The estimated ages of divergence among lineages are in accordance with a Miocene origin of the extant moles. The genus likely originated in Asia, spreading into Europe during the Pliocene. The evolution of moles appears to have been driven by changes in moisture levels that influenced extinction and speciation events during the Miocene and the Pliocene. Pleistocene climatic oscillations likely caused the range shrinkages and expansions that led to the current distribution pattern of most Talpa species.

Mitochondrial phylogeography of the European ground squirrel, Spermophilus citellus, yields evidence on refugia for steppic taxa in the southern Balkans.

The spatial genetic structure of the European ground squirrel, a species characteristic of the short-grass steppe, was investigated on the basis of a 1140-bp cyt b gene sequence. The phylogeographical architecture of this species is expected to shed light on the putative long-term presence of the steppic ecosystem in south-eastern Europe and the evolutionary consequences of glacial cycles as forcing factors in speciation. Among 31 haplotypes, three highly divergent phylogenetic lineages (Southern, Northern and Jakupica) were recognized. This result suggests the past existence of an allopatric fragmentation event caused by effective biogeographical barriers. The Southern lineage consisted of the southernmost populations, those from Greece, Macedonia and European Turkey, and showed the highest divergence from all other samples. Haplotypes of the Northern lineage showed little geographical structure, with dispersal on both sides of the Danube River and in both of the two main geographical fragments of the species. The Jakupica lineage is a geographical isolate on a high plateau in central Macedonia. The estimated time for divergence of the Southern lineage (ca. 0.58 Mya) suggests the long-term persistence of a short-grass steppic refugium in the southern Balkans. Although the divergence between the Northern and Jakupica lineages occurred more recently (ca. 0.3 Mya), it still putatively predates two glacial cycles. The three phylogeographical lineages of the European ground squirrel should be regarded as independent units for conservation management purposes.

Genetic variation and phylogeography of free-living mouse species (genus Mus) in the Balkans and the Middle East.

This work presents a study of the distribution and pattern of variation throughout the ranges of three free-living mouse species of the genus Mus-M. macedonicus, M. spicilegus, and a M. cypriacus - based on sequencing of two segments of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region. The study shows a similar level of variability in the three species and suggests their recent population expansion. The highest proportion of variation is found within populations indicating low genetic structuring. Phylogenetic analysis confirms the significant divergence of a mitochondrial lineage of M. macedonicus from Israel, recently described as a new subspecies, M. macedonicus spretoides. Conversely, no genetic hiatus is revealed between European and Asian populations of M. macedonicus macedonicus. Although phylogenetic relationships among M. spicilegus populations could not be unravelled precisely, the results suggest a recent westward expansion of the species. The mtDNA divergence between M. macedonicus and M. spicilegus is 7.3%, suggesting their split between c. 700,000 and 1 million years ago. These dates correspond with a coalescent estimate about 720,000 years ago. On the other hand, M. cypriacus appeared almost twice as divergent from the former species (4.5%) as from the latter (8.8%) suggesting a divergence of c. 430,000-610,000 years ago (coalescent approximately 490,000 years ago) and 830,000-1.2 million years ago (coalescent approximately 780,000 years ago), respectively. Approximate times of population expansion have also been estimated for all taxa and groups of populations. Existence of several glacial refuges and various colonization scenarios are discussed; since all estimated divergence times fall within interglacial periods it seems that climatic oscillations did not play a crucial role in the evolution of the three species.

Molecular evidence of Pleistocene bidirectional faunal exchange between Europe and the Near East: the case of the bicoloured shrew (Crocidura leucodon, Soricidae).

We sequenced 1077 bp of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and 511 bp of the nuclear Apolipoprotein B gene in bicoloured shrew (Crocidura leucodon, Soricidae) populations ranging from France to Georgia. The aims of the study were to identify the main genetic clades within this species and the influence of Pleistocene climatic variations on the respective clades. The mitochondrial analyses revealed a European clade distributed from France eastwards to north-western Turkey and a Near East clade distributed from Georgia to Romania; the two clades separated during the Middle Pleistocene. We clearly identified a population expansion after a bottleneck for the European clade based on mitochondrial and nuclear sequencing data; this expansion was not observed for the eastern clade. We hypothesize that the western population was confined to a small Italo-Balkanic refugium, whereas the eastern population subsisted in several refugia along the southern coast of the Black Sea.