Do Selye's mammalian "GAS" concept and "co-stress" response exist in plants?

Converging data indicate the possible existence of a general adaptation syndrome (GAS) in which different types of stress evoke identical coping mechanisms. In Selyean terms, this implies a "co-stress" response whereby one type of stress resistance may impart co-resistance to others. Common coping denominators may be physiological or morphological. The former include oxy-free radical scavenging, osmoregulation, ABA, jasmonates, chaperones, HSPs, and phytochelatins. Morphological GAS adaptations include leaf pubescence, movements and stance, and rooting characteristics. The feasibility, with certain reservations, of the GAS hypothesis is discussed here.

Responses to iron deficiency in Arabidopsis thaliana: the Turbo iron reductase does not depend on the formation of root hairs and transfer cells.

Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. Columbia wild type and a root hair-less mutant RM57 were grown on iron-containing and iron-deficient nutrient solutions. In both genotypes, ferric chelate reductase (FCR) of intact roots was induced upon iron deficiency and followed a Michaelis-Menten kinetic with a Km of 45 and 54 microM FeIII-EDTA and a Vmax of 42 and 33 nmol Fe2+.(g FW)-1.min-1 for the wild type and the mutant, respectively. The pH optimum for the reaction was around pH 5.5. The approximately four fold stimulation of FCR activity was independent of formation of root hairs and/or transfer cells induced by iron deficiency. Iron-deficiency-induced chlorosis and the development of a rigid root habit disappeared when ferric chelate was applied to the leaves, while FCR activity remained unchanged. The time course of the responses to iron deficiency showed that morphological and physiological responses were controlled separately.

Relation between relative growth rate, endogenous gibberellins, and the response to applied gibberellic acid for Plantago major.

Relationships between relative growth rate (RGR), endogenous gibberellin (GA) concentration and the response to application of gibberellic acid (GA(3) ) were studied for two inbred lines of Plantago major L., which differed in RGR. A4, the fast-growing inbred line, had a higher free GA concentration than the slow-growing W9, as analyzed by enzyme immunoassay. GA(3) application increased total plant weight and RGR(3) particularly for the slow-growing line. Chlorophyll a content and photosynthetic activity per unit leaf area were decreased, while transpiration rate was unaffected by GA(3) application. The increase in RGR by GA(3) application was associated with an increased leaf weight ratio; specific leaf area and percentage of dry matter in the leaves were only temporarily affected. Root respiration rate per unit dry weight was unaffected. The correlation between low RGR, low GA concentration and high responsiveness to applied GA(3) supports the contention that gibberellins are involved in the regulation of RGR. However, the transient influence of GA(3) application on some growth components suggests the involvement of other regulatory factors in addition to GA.

Combined electron-spin-resonance, X-ray-diffraction studies on phospholipid vesicles obtained from cold-hardened wheats : I. An attempt to correlate electron-spin-resonance spectral characteristics with frost resistance.

Phospholipid multibilayers, obtained from two cultivars of thermally acclimated wheats of different frost resistances (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Penjamo 62, the sensitive cultivar, and T. aestivum L. cv. Miranovskaja 808, the frost-resistant cultivar), were investigated using electron-spin-resonance and X-ray-diffraction techniques. The former technique revealed two breaks in the motion of the spin-labelled fatty acid 2-(14-carboxyte-tradecyl)-2-ethyl-4,4-dimethyl-3-oxazolidinyloxyl, for both cultivars (+3°C,-17° C and +5° C,-18° C, respectively) when grown at 22° C. The resistant cultivar compensated for exposure to cold (+2° C) by shifting the onset of the apparent phase-separation temperature from +3° C to-16° C. The sensitive cultivar was unable to do so. X-ray diffraction did not reveal fluid-to-gel transitions between +20° C and-10° C in any of the samples. The possible role of the formation of relatively ordered aggregates or clusters of lipid molecules discerned by spin probe within the otherwise freely dispersed liquid-like lipids is discussed in terms of freezing injury of plants.

Combined electron-spin-resonance, X-ray-diffraction studies on phospholipid vesicles obtained from cold-hardened wheats : II. The role of free sterols.

The contents of free sterols and phospholipids in leaves of wheat, Triticum aestivum L., cultivars of different frost resistances, as well as the physical state of isolated phospholipids in the presence and absence of sterols, were compared before and after hardening. There was an inverse relationship between the sterol/phospholipid ratio and frost tolerance as a consequence of both a decrease in the free sterol, and an increase in the total phospholipid content. Sterol-sterol interactions were investigated using wide angle X-ray diffraction, while the phase behaviour of phospholipid vesicles was studied using the electron-spin-resonance (ESR) technique. No sterol-sterol interactions at-10° C were detected in vesicles obtained from the hardened most cold-tolerant cultivar (Miranovskaja 808), containing sterols in a ratio (0.08) found in the original lipid extracts. In contrast, when the sterol-phospholipid ratio in the vesicles was set to the level (0.39) found in the extracts of the most sensitive cultivar, Penjamo 62, the appearance of sharp reflexion rings at 4.5·10(-1), 4.8·10(-1) and 5.0·10(-1) nm indicated strong sterol-sterol interactions. The temperatures for the onset of phase separation for vesicles of identical sterol/phospholipid ratios found in lipid extracts of hardened Miranovskaja 808 were almost the same as those measured in purified phospholipids (-15 vs.-16° C). In contrast, the temperature for the onset of phase separation of vesicles with a sterol/phospholipid ratio characteristic of hardened Penjamo 62 was shifted upwards (from-6 to-2° C). Phase separation was not completed in the vesicles of Miranovskaja 808 in the temperature range scanned (-30° C) but was shifted from-22 to-18° C in the presence of sterols in the case of Penjamo 62. The results are discussed in terms of the composition and physical state of membranes in relation to survival at freezing temperatures.

Effect of frost hardening on lipid and Fatty Acid composition of chloroplast thylakoid membranes in two wheat varieties of contrasting hardiness.

Lipid and fatty acid composition of chloroplast thylakoid membranes was determined in two varieties of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), the hardy Miranovskaja and the sensitive Penjamo. Plants were grown at room temperature or under frost hardening conditions (1.5 degrees C). Changes in lipid and fatty acid composition of the isolated thylakoids could be related to the temperature dependence of light-stimulated proton uptake. Changes in the thylakoid phospholipids upon hardening of the two varieties did not show any direct relation with low temperature tolerance of light-dependent H(+) uptake; neither did changes in phospholipid fatty acid chain lengthening to 20 and 22 C-atoms in combination with increased desaturation up to 6 double bonds. Increased low temperature tolerance of light-induced H(+) uptake by hardening was correlated with the following glycolipid changes: maintained glycolipid level, a proportionally increased digalactosyl diglyceride fraction, a decrease in thylakoid monogalactosyl diglyceride, increased sulfolipid fatty acid chain lengthening (20 and 22 C-atoms), and increased sulfolipid desaturation (4-6 double bonds). We suggest that the above mentioned changes in glycolipids have adaptive value for low temperature tolerance of light-dependent proton uptake.

Cyclopropane Fatty acids in relation to earliness in spring and drought tolerance in plants.

Long chain cyclopropane fatty acids were observed in the sulfolipid fraction extracted from leaves of the early spring plants Galanthus nivalis L. and Anthriscus silvestris L. (Hoffm.). The content of cyclopropane fatty acids with 25 carbon atoms appeared to be clearly correlated with earliness in spring, and it ranged from 68% (G. nivalis L., snow drop) to 0.5% (wheat). Several long chain cyclopropane fatty acids were found in the drought-tolerant Corynephorus canescens (L.) P.B., exclusively in the phosphatidyl choline fraction.

Lipids in alfalfa leaves in relation to cold hardiness.

The lipid composition of the leaves of hardy Vernal and cold-sensitive Caliverde alfalfa plants, grown at different temperatures, was determined. Phosphatidyl glycerol, phosphatidyl inositol, and the sulfolipid content were directly related to growth temperature. Mono- and digalactose diglyceride and phosphatidyl choline and ethanolamine were inversely related to temperature. At corresponding growth temperatures Vernal plants showed higher percentages of mono- and digalactose diglyceride and phosphatidyl choline and ethanolamine than Caliverde plants, while the opposite was true for phosphatidyl glycerol and inositol and sulfolipid. Differences in fatty acid composition of corresponding leaf lipid fractions of plants grown at different temperatures or differences in fatty acid composition between lipid fractions of plants of different varieties in general were negligible.

Effect of lipids on chloride and sodium transport in bean and cotton plants.

This paper describes experiments on Cl transport into the roots, stem and leaves of bean plants, the roots of which have been exposed to lipids in the root solution. Monoand digalactose diglyceride strongly increased Cl transport into all plant parts, probably by transport of the glycolipids further into the plant. Phosphatidyl choline increased Cl absorption by the roots, but transport into the stem and leaves was not affected. This phospholipid was only absorbed by the root tissue. (32)P-glycerophosphoryl choline added to the root solution was readily transported and esterified as phospholipid in all plant parts. This chemical did increase Cl uptake by the roots but Cl accumulation in the leaves was reduced by as much as 40%. Phosphatidyl glycerol, phosphatidyl inositol, and sulfolipid increased Cl transport into roots, stem, and leaves, and a high mobility of (32)P-phosphatidyl glycerol was demonstrated. Generally no significant effect of the above lipids on Na transport in beans and cotton was noted except that monogalactose diglyceride did increase Na transport in cotton.

Lipids in grape roots in relation to chloride transport.

A comparison was made between the lipids of the roots of 5 grape rootstocks which differ markedly in the extent to which they permit chloride accumulation in leaves. Monogalactose diglyceride concentration was directly related to chloride accumulation in the leaves of the 5 rootstocks. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine were inversely related to chloride accumulation. The variety with the highest chloride accumulation contained an unusually small amount of sterols. A striking negative correlation between content of lignoceric acid and chloride accumulation was observed. The lignoceric acid concentration ranged from 11.9% in the rootstock with the lowest chloride accumulation to 0.8% in the rootstock with the highest chloride accumulation. This fatty acid was found mainly in the phosphatidylcholine and the phosphatidylethanolamine lipid fractions.

Ion transport characteristics of grape root lipids in relation to chloride transport.

Ion transport properties of grape root lipids were measured as liquid-membrane permeability. Phosphatidylcholine exchanged chloride very slowly against carbonate and bicarbonate but more rapidly against nitrate, phosphate, and sulfate. Exchange of chloride against nitrate was rather low for the phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine lipid fractions; monogalactose diglyceride was by far the most effective chloride transporter studied. Comparison between the lipid composition of the roots of the 5 grape rootstocks and the chloride transport capacity of the specific membranes strongly suggests that, indeed, the chloride transport capacity of the lipids present in the membranes of the root cells accounts for the observed differences in chloride transport to the leaves. Whereas monogalactose diglyceride had a high chloride transport capacity, compared with phosphatidylcholine, the reverse was true for exchange of sodium against potassium. Thus, phosphatidylcholine has more the properties of a cation exchanger, and monogalactose diglyceride those of an anion transporter.