Phytoremediation of Pb by Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh and spatial variation of Pb in the Batticaloa Lagoon, Sri Lanka during driest periods: a field study.

Batticaloa Lagoon (Sri Lanka) is subjected to significant pollution as a result of anticipated unplanned development works since the cessation of a civil war in May, 2009. This paper presents the effectiveness of Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierh in the phytoremediation of Pb and the variation of Pb in sediments and water in the intertidal zone under drier weather conditions. Four pristine areas and 4 mangroves cut areas within the Manmunai North Divisional Secretariat Division/Batticaloa Municipal Council areas were investigated. Pb levels in the sediments and plants were negligible at all locations (i.e., below the method detection limit of the AAS for sediments and plants which is 0.25 mg/kg dry weight and 0.5 mg/kg dry weight, respectively). However, the water environment showed significant contamination (0.17-0.29 mg/L and 0.26-0.34 mg/L in pristine areas and cleared areas, respectively), hence Pb bioaccumulation is likely in fish and other biota. Avicennia marina is not effective to phytoremediate Pb under significant saline conditions.

Mechanisms of manganese removal from wastewaters in constructed wetlands comprising water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) grown under different nutrient conditions.

This article discusses key mechanisms involved in removing 1 mg/L Mn from synthetic wastewaters in constructed wetlands comprising water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) grown under different nutrient levels of 1-fold (28 mg/L and 7.7 mg/L of total nitrogen and total phosphorus, respectively), 2-fold, 1/4-fold, and 1/8-fold. A mass balance was carried out to evaluate the key removal mechanisms. Phytoremediation mainly due to phytoextraction substantially contributed to manganese removal. However, chemical precipitation was absent, suggesting that manganese has a higher solubility in the given average pH (6.2 to 7.1) conditions in constructed wetlands. Bacterial mediated immobilization mechanisms also did not contribute to manganese removal. Sediments constituted a minor sink to manganese, implying that manganese has a poor adsorption potential. Constructed wetlands comprising water hyacinth are effective at removing manganese from wastewaters despite the fact that the plants are grown under higher or lower nutrient conditions.

Contribution of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) grown under different nutrient conditions to Fe-removal mechanisms in constructed wetlands.

Severe contamination of water resources including groundwater with iron (Fe) due to various anthropogenic activities has been a major environmental problem in industrial areas of Sri Lanka. Hence, the use of the obnoxious weed, water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) in constructed wetlands (floating aquatic macrophyte-based plant treatment systems) to phytoremediate Fe-rich wastewaters seems to be an appealing option. Although several studies have documented that hyacinths are good metal-accumulating plants none of these studies have documented the ability of this plant grown under different nutrient conditions to remove heavy metals from wastewaters. This paper, therefore, reports the phytoremediation efficiencies of water hyacinth grown under different nutrient conditions for Fe-rich wastewaters in batch-type constructed wetlands. This study was conducted for 15 weeks after 1-week acclimatization by culturing young water hyacinth plants (average height of 20+/-2cm) in 590L capacity fiberglass tanks under different nutrient concentrations of 1-fold [28 and 7.7mg/L of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP), respectively], 2-fold, 1/2-fold, 1/4-fold and 1/8-fold with synthetic wastewaters containing 9.27Femg/L. Another set-up of hyacinths containing only Fe as a heavy metal but without any nutrients (i.e., 0-fold) was also studied. A mass balance was carried out to investigate the phytoremediation efficiencies and to determine the different mechanisms governing Fe removal from the wastewaters. Fe removal was largely due to phytoremediation mainly through the process of rhizofiltration and chemical precipitation of Fe2O3 and FeOH3 followed by flocculation and sedimentation. However, chemical precipitation was more significant especially during the first 3 weeks of the study. Plants grown in the 0-fold set-up showed the highest phytoremediation efficiency of 47% during optimum growth at the 6th week with a highest accumulation of 6707Femg/kg dry weight. Active effluxing of Fe back to the wastewater at intermittent periods and with time was a key mechanism of avoiding Fe phytotoxicity in water hyacinth cultured in all set-ups. Our study elucidated that water hyacinth grown under nutrient-poor conditions are ideal to remove Fe from wastewaters with a hydraulic retention time of approximately 6 weeks.

Biogas production from water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) grown under different nitrogen concentrations.

This paper reports the biogas production from water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) grown under different nitrogen concentrations of 1-fold [28 mg/L of total nitrogen (TN)], 2-fold, 1/2-fold, 1/4-fold and 1/8-fold and plants harvested from a polluted water body. This study was carried out for a period of 4 months at ambient mesophilic temperatures of 30.3-31.3 degrees C using six 3-barreled batch-fed reactors with the innermost barrel (45 L) being used as the digester. There was no marked variation in the C/N ratios of the plants cultured under different nitrogen concentrations. The addition of fresh cow dung having a low C/N of 8 resulted in a significant reduction in the C/N ratios of the water hyacinth substrates. However, gas production commenced 3 days after charging the reactors and gas production rates peaked in 4-7 days. The volatile solids (VS) degradation and gas production patterns manifested that in conventional single-stage batch digesters acidogenesis and methanogenesis of water hyacinth requires a retention time of around 27-30 days and 27-51 days, respectively. Substrates in the f-1 digester (i.e., the digester containing plants grown under 28 TN mg/L) having the lowest VS content of 45.3 g/L with a highest C/N ratio of 16 showed fairly higher gas production rates consistently (10-27 days) with higher gas yields containing around 50-65% of CH4 (27-51 days). Moreover the highest overall VS (81.7%) removal efficiencies were reported from the f-1 digester. Fairly higher gas production rates and gas yields with fairly higher CH4 contents were also noticed from the f-2 digester containing substrates having a C/N of 14 and f-out digester (containing the plants harvested from the polluted water body) having the lowest C/N ratio of 9.7 with a fairly high VS content of 56 g/L. CH4 production was comparatively low in the f-1/8, f-1/4 and f-1/2 digesters having VS rich substrates with varying C/N ratios. We conclude that water hyacinth could be utilized for biogas production irrespective of the fact that the plants are grown under higher or lower nitrogen concentrations and that there is no necessity for the C/N ratio to be within the optimum range of 20-32 required for anaerobic digestion. Further it is concluded that several biochemical characteristics of the substrates significantly influences biogas production besides the C/N ratio.

Removal of aluminium by constructed wetlands with water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) grown under different nutritional conditions.

This article reports the phytoremediation efficiencies of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) grown under different nutritional conditions for Al rich wastewaters in batch type constructed wetlands (floating aquatic macrophyte-based plant treatment systems). This study was conducted for 15 weeks after 1 week acclimatization by culturing young water hyacinth (average height of 20 +/- 2 cm) in 590 L capacity fiberglass tanks under different nutrient concentrations of 2-fold [56 and 15.4 mg/L of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP), respectively], 1-fold, 1/2-fold, 1/4-fold and 1/8-fold with synthetic wastewaters containing 5.62 Al mg/L. A control set-up of hyacinths comprising only Al with no nutrients was also studied. A mass balance was carried out to investigate the phytoremediation efficiencies and to identify the different Al removal mechanisms from the wastewaters. Chemical precipitation of Al(OH)3 was a dominant contribution to Al removal at the beginning of the study, whereas adsorption of Al3+ to sediments was observed to be a predominant Al removal mechanism as the study progressed. Phytoremediation mainly due to rhizofiltration was also an important mechanism of Al removal especially during the first 4 weeks of the study in almost all the set-ups. However, chemical precipitation and sediment adsorption of Al3+ was a dominant contribution to Al removal in comparison with phytoremediation. Plants cultured in the control set-up showed the highest phytoremediation efficiency of 63% during the period of the 4th week. A similar scenario was evident in the 1/8-fold set-up. Hence we conclude that water hyacinth grown under lower nutritional conditions are more ideal to commence a batch type constructed wetland treating Al rich wastewaters with a hydraulic retention time of approximately 4 weeks, after which a complete harvesting is recommended.