Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in lion-tailed macaque Macaca silenus in central Western Ghats, India.

This study examines gastrointestinal parasites in the endangered lion-tailed macaque, which is sympatric with the bonnet macaque that has relocated from nearby towns or agriculture landscapes dominated by humans and livestock. One hundred and ninety-four fresh fecal samples from lion-tailed macaques were collected from a group located at Chiksuli in the central Western Ghats. Of these, 48.5% had at least one endoparasite taxon. The prevalence of endoparasites varied from 0 to 75.0%, and observed endoparasite taxa varied between 0 and 10 across different months. The prevalence of endoparasites decreased with increasing rainfall and with increasing average maximum temperature across months. Of the 17 endoparasite taxa, 11 were nematodes, two were cestodes, and four were protozoans. The prevalence of Ascaris sp. and Entamoeba coli was higher than the other taxa. The overall load, helminth load, and protozoan load did not differ between months. The overall endoparasite load was greater in immature macaques in all seasons. Helminth load was higher in adult males, especially in the summer. Comparing our findings with those from sympatric relocated bonnet macaques of Chiksuli (Kumar et al. in PLoS ONE 13(11):e0207495, 2018) and lion-tailed macaques of Anamalai Hills (Hussain et al. in PLoS ONE 8(5):e63685, 2013) revealed: (a) a much higher prevalence of endoparasites in lion-tailed macaques from fragments of Anamalai Hills than in lion-tailed and bonnet macaques of Chiksuli; (b) higher richness of endoparasites in both macaque species of Chiksuli than in Anamalai lion-tailed macaques; and (c) more similar composition of endoparasite taxa between the Chiksuli lion-tailed and bonnet macaques than with the Anamalai Hills lion-tailed macaques. We suggest a complete cessation of relocation of commensal animals to the wild habitat. If relocation is necessary, then individuals to be relocated should be thoroughly screened and treated to prevent transferring endoparasite infections to wild populations.

Multiple infestations of gastrointestinal parasites - Probable cause for high mortality of Spot-billed Pelican (Pelecanus philippensis) at Kokrebellur Community Reserve, India.

We witnessed mortalities of Spot-billed Pelicans Pelecanus philippensis between December 2017 and May 2018 in Mandya and Mysuru districts of Karnataka, especially at Kokrebellur Community Reserve in Mandya district. The region has experienced severe drought in recent years with negligible water in all the water tanks. A total of 67 Spot-billed Pelicans died in five locations, of which 55 adult birds died at Kokrebellur. We collected four dead pelicans along with 97 fecal samples of live birds at Kokrebellur, water samples from nine water tanks around Kokrebellur, and six fish samples. We isolated the endoparasite eggs by following sedimentation and flotation technique, and counted the eggs from the water and fecal samples, and identified at the genus level using light microscope. We approximately counted the endoparasites by dissecting the fish and conducting a necropsy on dead pelicans. Endoparasite eggs were detected in seven of the nine water tanks. Each fish sample had at least 50-100 L3 stage worms of Contracaecum sp., and 880.0 ±â€¯459.3SD of Contracaecum sp., worms in the digestive tracts and 60.0 ±â€¯36.5SD worms of Echinostoma sp. in the intestine of the four dead pelicans. The endoparasite prevalence was 84.5% (N = 83) with a mean abundance of 368.2 ±â€¯561.5SD eggs/g in the fecal samples of live pelicans. Contracaecum sp., Echinostoma sp. and Opisthorchis viverrini were recorded in 51, 67 and nine fecal samples respectively. The high load of endoparasite eggs in the water tanks, an infestation of Contracaecum sp. in fishes and a heavy load of fully-grown worms of Contracaecum sp. and Echinostoma sp. in the adult pelicans are indicative of their high mortality in Kokrebellur Community Reserve. The coordinated program was initiated with the support of all stakeholders to control the endoparasites in water, fish, and pelicans.

Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in bonnet macaque and possible consequences of their unmanaged relocations.

Relocation is one of the mitigating measures taken by either local people or related officers to reduce the human-bonnet macaque Macaca radiata conflict in India. The review on relocations of primates in India indicates that monkeys are unscreened for diseases or gastrointestinal parasites (henceforth endoparasites) before relocation. We collected 161 spatial samples from 20 groups of bonnet macaque across their distribution range in south India and 205 temporal samples from a group in Chiksuli in the central Western Ghats. The isolation of endoparasite eggs/cysts from the fecal samples was by the centrifugation flotation and sedimentation method. All the sampled groups, except one, had an infection of at least one endoparasite taxa, and a total of 21 endoparasite taxon were recorded. The number of helminth taxon (16) were more than protozoan (5), further, among helminths, nematodes (11) were more common than cestodes (5). Although the prevalence of Ascaris sp. (26.0%), Strongyloides sp. (13.0%), and Coccidia sp. (13.0%) were greater, the load of Entamoeba coli, Giardia sp., Dipylidium caninum and Diphyllobothrium sp. were very high. Distant groups had more similarity in composition of endoparasites taxon than closely located groups. Among all the variables, the degree of provisioning was the topmost determinant factor for the endoparasite taxon richness and their load. Temporal sampling indicates that the endoparasite infection remains continuous throughout the year. Monthly rainfall and average maximum temperature in the month did not influence the endoparasite richness. A total of 17 taxon of helminths and four-taxon of protozoan were recorded. The prevalence of Oesophagostomum sp., and Strongyloides sp., and mean egg load of Spirurids and Trichuris sp. was higher than other endoparasite taxon. The overall endoparasite load and helminth load was higher in immatures than adults, where, adult females had the highest protozoan load in the monsoon. The findings indicate that relocation of commensal bonnet macaque to wild habitat can possible to lead transmission of novel endoparasites that can affect their population. Thus, we suggest avoidance of such relocations, however, if inevitable the captured animals need to be screened and treated for diseases and endoparasites before relocations.

Losing its ground: A case study of fast declining populations of a 'least-concern' species, the bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata).

The populations of many species that are widespread and commensal with humans have been drastically declining during the past few decades, but little attention has been paid to their conservation. Here, we report the status of the bonnet macaque, a species that is considered 'least-concern' for conservation. We show that the widely ranging rhesus macaque is expanding its range into the distributional range of the bonnet macaque, a species endemic only to southern India. Bonnet macaques have very low abundance in forests of all types indicating that it is not a typically forest dwelling species. The traditionally preferred habitats of bonnet macaques have been Hindu temples/ tourist spots but our data reveal that nearly 50% population of bonnet macaques has disappeared from such previously occupied spots. Another preferred habitat of bonnet macaques has been roadsides with abundant Ficus trees adjoining croplands. We found that between 2003 and 2015, the roadsides have drastically changed where vegetation has been replaced with barren lands and urbanization. Consequently, the populations of bonnet macaques have declined by more than 65% over the past 25 years, and by more than 50% between 2003 and 2015 alone. We, therefore, conclude that this 'least-concern' species is actually facing serious conservation challenges. We also identify a few places such as small hillocks with natural vegetation and a few temples/tourist spots which are likely to remain stable and thus can serve as 'bonnet macaque conservation reserves'. Since the bonnet macaque shares many traits with several other commensal and 'low-risk' species, it can serve as a model for the development of long-term conservation strategies for most such species.

Demography and reproductive output in langurs of the Western Ghats, India.

Life history traits evolve such that the reproductive output of an organism is maximized. Demographic characteristics, a consequence of life history traits, indicate the reproductive output per individual in group-living species. Both phylogenetic and ecological factors influence demographic traits. In the forests of the Western Ghats, India, we studied the demography of three langur species: Semnopithecus johnii, a wet forest-dwelling species; Semnopithecus hypoleucos, largely a wet forest-dwelling species; and Semnopithecus priam, a primarily dry forest-dwelling species. S. hypoleucos and S. priam are genetically closer to each other than to S. johnii. We sampled a total of 193 groups of the three species of langurs. The group size was smaller in the two wet forest-dwelling species, S. johnii (median = 10) and S. hypoleucos (nine), than in the dry forest-dwelling species, S. priam (18). The number of adult females per group was higher in S. priam (seven) and S. johnii (six) than in S. hypoleucos (four). On the other hand, the adult female:immature ratio, indicating reproductive output and life history, was highest in S. johnii (1:0.33) followed by S. hypoleucos (1:1) and S. priam (1:1.09). Our results suggest that reproductive output is lowest in the arboreal wet forest species and increases as the species become somewhat dry deciduous forest dwellers, or almost facultative dry forest dwellers, and relatively more terrestrial. Some traits, such as group size, appear to be more sensitive to ecological factors, and some other traits such as age-sex ratios and reproductive output appear to be more conservative.

Of how much concern are the 'least concern' species? Distribution and conservation status of bonnet macaques, rhesus macaques and Hanuman langurs in Karnataka, India.

We assessed the distribution and conservation status of bonnet macaques (Macaca radiata), rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) and Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) in the state of Karnataka, India. Karnataka is situated in southwest India with an area of 191,791 km(2). A total of 9697 km of vehicular survey was made from November 2001 to July 2004. We also visited 107 temples/tourist spots to determine the presence of primates. Bonnet macaques and Hanuman langurs were widely distributed, whereas rhesus macaques were not found in the state. However, bonnet macaques were absent in a few districts in the northern plains and Hanuman langurs were absent in some districts of the southern plains. A total of 205 groups of bonnet macaques and 139 groups of Hanuman langurs were sighted. The relative encounter rate of both species differed across biogeographic zones. Bonnet macaques were largely encountered in the Western Ghats and the Southern Plateau whereas Hanuman langurs were abundant in the Western Ghats and Northern Plains. We found that bonnet macaques have been eliminated from about 48% temples/tourist spots where they occurred in the recent past. The Hanuman langur population of Dharwar-Haliyal Road was assessed during April 2003, and we found that the present population size was about 38% of a previous survey in 1961. Habitat change, hunting/trapping and translocation were the major factors causing a decline in the langur population.