Do All Victimization Types Cluster? Assessing the Co-occurrence of Hate Speech With Criminal and Bullying Victimization at School.

Evidence indicates that poly-victimization relates to greater victim impacts than single-type victimization. A separate body of research finds that victimization motivated by bias is associated with elevated harm. However, little empirical work has assessed whether youth who experience biased victimization are poly-victims, and studies have not sufficiently examined the potentially deleterious effects of experiencing both types of victimization. This study uses nationally representative data to examine the prevalence of school-based crime and bullying victimization among hate speech victims. I then assess the odds of experiencing fear and avoiding places at school across victimization types. The findings reveal that a considerable number of hate speech victims are also bullied and that experiencing any two types of victimization is associated with increased odds of fear and avoidance. These results highlight the importance of targeting biased victimization in anti-bullying programming.

Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Fear-Victimization Gap at School: An Examination of School Context and Trends Over Time.

This study examined racial and ethnic differences in adolescents' fear of attack or harm at school after adjusting for differences in violent victimization prevalence. We analyzed 49,782 surveys from 35,588 adolescents who participated in the NCVS School Crime Supplement (1999-2017). We tested whether differences in fear are attributable to youths' (1) experiences with non-criminal harms, (2) indirect exposure to crime and violence at their school, or (3) school security and disciplinary practices. We then examined trends in fear and victimization by race/ethnicity over a period of crime decline to determine how fear has changed relative to victimization across the racial/ethnic groups. In the pooled sample, Black and Hispanic youth had 93% and 74% higher odds than White youth of expressing fear at school, after adjusting for violent victimization and demographic characteristics. After accounting for non-criminal harms, exposure to crime and violence, and school security/discipline, Black and Hispanic youth had only 39% and 44% higher odds than White youth of expressing fear, respectively. Mediation analyses indicated that the explanatory variables explained half (50.2%) and one third (33.7%) of the difference in the odds of fear between Black and Hispanic youth compared to White youth. Analyses over time indicated that fear declined more for Black and Hispanic youth than White youth, despite similarly-sized declines in victimization across race/ethnicity. Altogether, the results suggest that racial and ethnic differences in fear of criminal victimization partly reflect differential experiences and environments at school. We consider the implications of our findings in terms of understanding how the school context influences fear differently across students' racial and ethnic identities.