Oxygen deficiency and salinity affect cell-specific ion concentrations in adventitious roots of barley (Hordeum vulgare).

Oxygen deficiency associated with soil waterlogging adversely impacts root respiration and nutrient acquisition. We investigated the effects of O2 deficiency and salinity (100 mM NaCl) on radial O2 concentrations and cell-specific ion distributions in adventitious roots of barley (Hordeum vulgare). Microelectrode profiling measured O2 concentrations across roots in aerated, aerated saline, stagnant or stagnant saline media. X-ray microanalysis at two positions behind the apex determined the cell-specific elemental concentrations of potassium (K), sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl) across roots. Severe O2 deficiency occurred in the stele and apical regions of roots in stagnant solutions. O2 deficiency in the stele reduced the concentrations of K, Na and Cl in the pericycle and xylem parenchyma cells at the subapical region. Near the root apex, Na declined across the cortex in roots from the aerated saline solution but was relatively high in all cell types in roots from the stagnant saline solution. Oxygen deficiency has a substantial impact on cellular ion concentrations in roots. Both pericycle and xylem parenchyma cells are involved in energy-dependent K loading into the xylem and in controlling radial Na and Cl transport. At root tips, accumulation of Na in the outer cell layers likely contributed to reduction of Na in inner cells of the tips.

Cell-specific localization of Na+ in roots of durum wheat and possible control points for salt exclusion.

Sodium exclusion from leaves is an important mechanism for salt tolerance in durum wheat. To characterize possible control points for Na(+) exclusion, quantitative cryo-analytical scanning electron microscopy was used to determine cell-specific ion profiles across roots of two durum wheat genotypes with contrasting rates of Na(+) transport from root to shoot grown in 50 mm NaCl. The Na(+) concentration in Line 149 (low transport genotype) declined across the cortex, being highest in the epidermal and sub-epidermal cells (48 mm) and lowest in the inner cortical cells (22 mm). Na(+) was high in the pericycle (85 mm) and low in the xylem parenchyma (34 mm). The Na(+) profile in Tamaroi (high transport genotype) had a similar trend but with a high concentration (130 mm) in the xylem parenchyma. The K(+) profiles were generally inverse to those of Na(+). Chloride was only detected in the epidermis. These data suggest that the epidermal and cortical cells removed most of the Na(+) and Cl(-) from the transpiration stream before it reached the endodermis, and that the endodermis is not the control point for salt uptake by the plant. The pericycle as well as the xylem parenchyma may be important in the control of net Na(+) loading of the xylem.

Approaches to increasing the salt tolerance of wheat and other cereals.

This review describes physiological mechanisms and selectable indicators of gene action, with the aim of promoting new screening methods to identify genetic variation for increasing the salt tolerance of cereal crops. Physiological mechanisms that underlie traits for salt tolerance could be used to identify new genetic sources of salt tolerance. Important mechanisms of tolerance involve Na+ exclusion from the transpiration stream, sequestration of Na+ and Cl- in the vacuoles of root and leaf cells, and other processes that promote fast growth despite the osmotic stress of the salt outside the roots. Screening methods for these traits are discussed in relation to their use in breeding, particularly with respect to wheat. Precise phenotyping is the key to finding and introducing new genes for salt tolerance into crop plants.

Boron response in wheat is genotype-dependent and related to boron uptake, translocation, allocation, plant phenological development and growth rate.

Wheat genotypes often differ significantly in their response to low and high boron (B) supply, although the underlying mechanisms for such differences are poorly understood. The stable isotopes 10B and 11B were used to investigate the contribution of root retention, uptake rates, translocation and allocation of B within wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) genotypes known to differ in B response. At high B supply, the tolerant GREEK had reduced B concentrations in main shoot leaves associated with lower uptake rates and increased allocation of B to tillers. The equally tolerant BT-SCHOMBURGK exhibited high uptake rates, but accumulation was low because of rapid development, lower concentrations of soluble B in the cell sap and lower B translocation to the shoot. In WlMMC, high uptake rates, slow development, high translocation and allocation to main shoots resulted in high B accumulation and poor tolerance. Retention in roots was not substantial in any of the genotypes. The results suggest that B tolerance is multi-faceted and genotype specific. Mechanisms contributing to B tolerance include reduced uptake rates and differential translocation and allocation within plants. Additionally, plant growth rate and leaf morphology can influence B response by affecting tissue concentrations and allowing completion of plant maturation before B accumulation impairs growth. These mechanisms are expressed to different extents depending on the genotype.

Evidence for high activity of xylem parenchyma and ray cells in the interface of host stem and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-induced tumours of Ricinus communis.

Rapidly developing tumours at hypocotyls of Ricinus communis, induced by Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain C58, were characterized by strong differentiation of vascular bundles and their functional connection to the host bundles. The stem/tumour interface showed increased xylem, with numerous vessels accompanied by multiseriate unlignified rays. To know how nutrients efficiently accumulate in the tumour sink tissue, cell electropotentials (E(m)) in cross-sections were mapped. The measured cells were identified by injected Lucifer Yellow. Xylem and phloem parenchyma cells and stem/tumour-located rays hyperpolarized to E(m) values of about -170 mV, which suggest high plasma membrane proton pump activities. Rapidly dividing cells of cambia or small tumour parenchyma cells had low E(m). The tumour aerenchyma and the stem cortex cells displayed values close to the energy-independent diffusion potential. The lowest values were recorded in stem pith cells. Cell K(+) concentrations largely matched the respective E(m). The pattern of individual cell electropotentials was supplemented by whole organ voltage measurements. The voltage differences between the tumour surface and the xylem perfusion solution in stems attached to the tumours, the trans-tumour electropotentials (TTP), confirm the findings of respiration-dependent and phytohormone-stimulated high plasma membrane proton pump activity in intact tumours, mainly in the xylem and phloem parenchyma and ray cells. TTPs were inhibited by addition of NaN(3), CN(-) plus SHAM or N(2) gas in the xylem perfusion solution and by external N(2) flushing. The data provide functional evidence for the structural basis of priority over the host shoot in nutrient flow from the stem to the tumour.

Determination of apoplastic Na+ in intact leaves of cotton by in vivo fluorescence ratio-imaging.

Salinity may reduce plant growth via Na+-toxicity symptoms in mature leaves after long-term exposure. It has been suggested by other authors that Na+ accumulates in the leaf apoplast and leads to dehydration of leaves, wilting, and finally to death of these leaves. Two methods were employed to determine the Na+ concentration in the leaf apoplast of salt-tolerant cotton plants under salinity. The ratio imaging of sodium-binding benzofuran isophthalate (SBFI) fluorescence was used to detect in vivo concentration changes and gradients of Na+ within the leaf apoplast under salinity stress, and results were compared with the infiltration-centrifugation method. Asignificant increase in Na+ concentration was found in the leaf apoplast under salinity (75 mM NaCl), but no further significant increase was determined when NaCl supply was increased from 75 to 150 mM. Both methods revealed that Na+ concentrations remained relatively low, and thus could not be responsible for the decline in yield under salinity. The ratio images showed changes in Na+ concentration and gradients within the leaf apoplast under salt stress, and demonstrated the validity of the method. However, SBFI fluorescence was also influenced by pH, proteins and salt-induced compatible osmolytes.

Mineral Ion composition and occurrence of CAM-like diurnal malate fluctuations in plants of coastal and desert habitats of israel and the Sinai.

1. The mineral ion composition and the occurrence of CAM-like diurnal malate fluctuations in species from 6 field locations in Israel and the Sinai were studied during the spring of 1974. The sites were a) a salt swamp near Acre on the Mediterranean Sea shore in the northern part of Israel, b) the high coast near Tel Aviv, c) the southern Dead Sea area near Sedom, d) the Negev highlands surrounding the ancient town of Avdat, e) the Wadi Paran in the southern Negev desert, and f) the Red Sea shore near the southeastern tip of the Sinai peninsula close to the Bedouin village of Nabek. The carbon assimilatory organs of the plants were analysed for Na+, K+, Cl- and SO42- as well as for malate at dawn and dusk. 2. Most species analysed are characterized by high levels of mineral ions (mainly Na+/and Cl-) often exceeding 300-400 µeq per g fresh weight, and by high Na+/K+ ratios in their tissues mainly ranging from 10 to 20. These typical halophytic attributes are particularly found in species of the Acre salt swamp, of the Dead Sea area and the Red Sea shore and in many species of the Negev highlands. 3. In plants occupying the Tel Aviv high coast habitats Na+ and Cl- are lower averaging 100 to 200 µeq per g fresh weight. The Na+/K+ ratio is about 5. 4. Numerous species mainly inhabiting the less saline loessial plains and wadis of the Negev desert contain only up to 100 µeq Na+ and Cl- per g fresh weight and are characterized by Na+/K+ ratios of about 1 and below. 5. The salt-accumulating species of the coastal habitats contain Na+ and Cl- in more or less equivalent amounts, i.e. halophytes of the "chloride type" in the terminology of Walter dominate these sites. In contrast, many inland halophytes chiefly belonging to the Chenopodiaceae accumulate much more Na+ than Cl- and/or SO42-. 6. The special feature of Na+ contents which far exceed the sum of Cl- and SO42- distinguishes the inland Chenopodiaceae as a "physiotype" from members of other taxa. The Zygophyllaceae included in this study form a further "physiotype" which is characterized by higher Cl- than Na+ concentrations. 7. Five species of the Aizoaceae family investigated showed no special pattern of mineral ion content. 8. Certain species, especially some belonging to the Brassicaceae, showed a slight malate accumulation during the day. 9. CAM-like diurnal malate fluctuations were only observed in four species: the halophytic Aizoaceae Mesembryanthemum crystallinum, M. forsskalii and M. nodiflorum and the non-halophytic Asclepiadaceae Caralluma It is suggested that, among halophytes, the capability to perform CAM is generally restricted to members of the Aizoaceae.