[Epidemiology of hypertension in Germany. Selected results of population-representative cross-sectional studies]. / Epidemiologie der arteriellen Hypertonie in Deutschland. Ausgewählte Ergebnisse bevölkerungsrepräsentativer Querschnittstudien.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The mortality rate from cardiovascular disease is higher in northern than southern Germany. To illuminate this further current epidemiological data on arterial hypertension were obtained and compared with previously collected data. METHODS: The results were based on interview and measurement data of 25- to 64 year-old participants in the Study of Health in Pomerania (SHIP-0 1997 - 2001; n = 3,042), and three population-representative surveys in the region of Augsburg, Southern Germany (MONICA S2 1989/90 n = 3,966; MONICA S3 1994/95 n = 3,916; S4 1999-2001 [KORA-2000 n = 3,464]). Hypertension was defined according to the WHO/ISH guidelines as blood pressure levels of > or =140/90 mmHg or antihypertensive medication given the subjects with known hypertension. Antihypertensive medication was classified as recommended by the German Hypertension Society. RESULTS: Currently, 57 % (95 % confidence intervall [CI] 54-59 %) of men and 32 % (CI 30-35) of women in Pomerania had hypertension compared to 36 % (CI 34-38 %) and 23 % (CI 21-25 %) in KORA-2000 with some decreases since MONICA S2 und S3. Although a significantly higher prevalence was found in the north than in the south, the medical care was equally poor in both regions: 44-46 % of men and 29-31 % of women were not aware of their hypertension. Among the hypertensives, only 26-31 % of males and 44-48 % of females were being treated for hypertension, mostly with beta blockers, ACE-inhibitors, calcium antagonists, diuretics and AT(1)-antagonists, at least half being given just one of these drugs. Fewer than half of the treated hypertensives were normotensive, regardless of the antihypertensive drug group that was given. CONCLUSION: As the overall situation regarding the treatment of hypertension remains inadequate, an aggressive approach to applying the evidence-based guidelines is essential. The underlying causes of this unacceptable degree of hypertension control requires further intensive investigation.

Association of cigarette smoking and tar and nicotine intake with development of type 2 diabetes mellitus in men and women from the general population: the MONICA/KORA Augsburg Cohort Study.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: We examined sex-specific associations between cigarette smoking and incident type 2 diabetes mellitus in Germany. SUBJECTS, MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study was based on 5,470 men and 5,422 women (aged 25-74 years) without diabetes who participated in one of the three population-based MONICA Augsburg surveys between 1984 and 1995. Incident cases of type 2 diabetes were assessed using follow-up questionnaires. Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated from Cox proportional hazard models. RESULTS: Up to 31 December 2002 a total of 409 cases of incident type 2 diabetes among men and 263 among women were registered. The number of cigarettes and the nicotine and tar consumption per day were associated with a significantly increased risk of type 2 diabetes among men, but not among women; this could be due to the low power of the study in women. After multivariable adjustment, the HRs for type 2 diabetes compared with never-smokers were 1.48, 2.03 and 2.10 for men smoking 1 to 14, 15 to 19 and > or =20 cigarettes/day (p for trend <0.0001) and 1.25, 1.34 and 1.37 for women smoking 1 to 9, 10 to 19 and > or =20 cigarettes/day (p for trend 0.0985). Compared with never-smokers, the HRs for increasing tar intake in men (1-167, 168-259 and > or =260 mg/day) were 1.45, 2.32 and 2.07 (p for trend <0.0001); the respective HRs in women (1-89, 90-194 and > or =195 mg/day) were 1.18, 1.57 and 1.24 (p for trend 0.1159). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Cigarette smoking is an important modifiable risk factor of type 2 diabetes particularly in men from the general population.

Selective contribution of diabetes and other cardiovascular risk factors to cardiac autonomic dysfunction in the general population.

Both cardiac autonomic dysfunction adn cardiovascular risk factors are related to and excess risk of mortality. We sought to determine whether the major cardiovascular risk factors are associated with diminished heart rate variability (HRV), prolonged QTc interval, or increased QT dispersion (QTD). Male (n = 1030) and female (n = 957) subjects, aged 55-74 years, who participated in the population-based MONICA Augsburg survey 1989/90 were assessed for the presence of cardiovascular risk factors such as diabetes, hypertension, obesity, dyslipidemia, smoking, and low physical activity. Lowest quartiles for time domain indexes of HRV (SD of R-R intervals [SDNN], max-min difference), QTc > 440 ms, and QTD > 60 ms determined from 12-lead resting ECG were used as cutpoints. In men, after adjustment for age and alcohol consumption, significant independent determinants for the lowest quartiles of SDNN were diabetes, obesity, and smoking. Independent contributors to prolonged QTc were hypertension, obesity, smoking, and low physical activity, whereas for increased QTD it was only hypertension. In women, diabetes was the only contributor to low SDNN, and hypertension was the only determinant of prolonged QTc. In conclusion, diabetes is the primary determinant of reduced HRV in the general population, while hypertension is the primary contributor to prolonged QTc in both sexes. However, obesity and smoking contribute to autonomic dysfunction in men but not women. Thus, a selectivity and sex-related differences exist among the various cardiovascular risk factors as to their influence on autonomic dysfunction.

Synergistic effects of depressed mood and obesity on long-term cardiovascular risks in 1510 obese men and women: results from the MONICA-KORA Augsburg Cohort Study 1984-1998.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the contribution of depressed mood in obese subjects on the prediction of a future coronary heart disease event (CHD). DESIGN: A prospective population-based cohort study of three independent cross-sectional surveys with 6239 subjects, 45-74 years of age and free of diagnosed CHD, stroke and cancer. During a mean follow-up of 7 years, 179 CHD events occurred among men and 50 events among women. SUBJECTS: A total of 737 (23%) male and 773 (26%) female subjects suffering from obesity (BMI >or=30 kg/m2). MEASUREMENTS: Body weight determined by trained medical staff following a standardized protocol; standardized questionnaires to assess subsyndromal depressive mood and other psychosocial features. RESULTS: The main effect of obesity to predict a future CHD (hazard ratio, HR=1.38, 95% CI 1.03-1.84; P=0.031) and the interaction term of obesity by depression (HR=1.73, 95% CI 0.98-3.05; P=0.060) were borderline significant, both covariate adjusted for multiple risk factors. Relative to the male subgroup with normal body weight and no depression, the male obese group with no depression was not at significantly increased risk for CHD events (HR=1.17, 95% CI 0.76-1.80; P=0.473) whereas CHD risk in males with both obesity and depressed mood was substantially increased (HR=2.32, 95% CI 1.45-3.72, P>0.0001). The findings for women were similar, however, not significant probably owing to lack of power associated with low event rates. Combining obesity and depressed mood resulted in a relative risk to suffer from a future CHD event of HR 1.84 (95% CI 0.79-4.26; P=0.158). CONCLUSIONS: Depressed mood substantially amplifies the CHD risk of middle-aged obese, but otherwise apparently healthy men. The impact of depression on the obesity risk in women is less pronounced.

Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase is a predictor of incident coronary events in apparently healthy men from the general population.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether serum gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) is an independent predictor for incident coronary events in initially healthy men from the general population. METHODS AND RESULTS: The study was based on 1878 men (aged 25-64 years) who participated in the first MONICA Augsburg survey 1984/1985, and who were free of coronary heart disease at baseline. Up to 2002 a total of 150 incident acute coronary events occurred. Baseline levels of GGT were higher in men who experienced an event than in event-free men (28.4+/-2.0 units/l versus 22.4+/-2.1 units/l, p 0.0002). GGT was highly correlated with other cardiovascular risk factors. In a Cox proportional hazards model after age adjustment hazard ratios (HR) for incident myocardial infarction across GGT quartiles (<13, 13 to <20, 20 to <35, and >/=35 units/l) were 1.0, 1.84, 2.02, and 3.08 (p for trend 0.0001). Further adjustment for hypertension, TC/HDL ratio, diabetes, smoking, physical activity, alcohol intake, education years and BMI attenuated the association; comparing the highest versus lowest quartile of GGT the HR for a first-ever coronary event was then 2.34 (95% CI, 1.23-4.44). CONCLUSIONS: Serum GGT is a strong predictor of acute coronary events in apparently healthy men from the general population, independent of other risk factors for cardiovascular disease.

[Quality of care and extent of complications in a population-based sample of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. The KORA Survey 2000]. / Versorgungsqualität und Ausmass von Komplikationen an einer bevölkerungsbezogenen Stichprobe von Typ 2-Diabetespatienten. Der KORA-Survey 2000.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyse health care processes and outcomes in type 2 diabetes in a representative population sample of persons, aged 25-74 years, in the region of Augsburg, Germany. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Based on the KORA Survey 2000, indicators of health care services and outcomes were analysed for all study subjects with known type 2 diabetes (n=149; 80 males (54%)) , mean age 62 +/- 9 years; total random population sample: 4,261 persons). Means and prevalences were calculated, including 95% confidence intervals (CI). Associated factors were analysed using multivariate regression models. RESULTS: 57% of the patients had not received adequate drug treatment concerning hypertension and 43% concerning hypercholesterolemia. 63% (CI: 54-70 %) and 38% (CI: 30-47%), respectively, reported that their eyes or feet had been examined during the past 12 months. 47% (CI: 39-56%) had been instructed about their diabetes. 69% (CI: 61-76%) of the subjects did not know the term "HbA(1c)", the proportion being higher among subjects without diabetes education or those of a low social status. 13% (CI: 8-20%) of the subjects had been told by their medical practitioner that they had a retinopathy, 5% (CI: 2- 10%) a foot ulcer, 19% (CI: 12-28%) proteinuria. Two persons were blind, one had been on renal dialysis, and 5% (CI: 2-10%) had undergone amputation of a limb. 6% (3-12%) had at least one of the end-stage diabetic complications. The mean HbA(1c) was 7.2 +/- 1.6%, significantly higher in those with a diabetes for >10 years. CONCLUSIONS: The population-based data regarding indicators of type 2 diabetes care processes and outcome in a defined region in Germany show that the treatment of hypertension and hypercholesterolemia was highly inappropriate, as was the frequency of medical control investigations. The high proportion of subjects who did not know the term "HbA(1c)" was striking, particularly among those of a low social status. A significant proportion had severe late complications. The mean HbA(1c), however, was better than had been reported in some previous German practice-based studies.

Serum gamma-glutamyltransferase and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus in men and women from the general population.

OBJECTIVES: To examine gender-specific associations between gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) and incident type 2 diabetes mellitus in a representative population-based sample in Germany. DESIGN: Prospective population-based study. METHODS: The study was based on 1851 men and 1836 women (aged 25-64 years) who participated in the first Monitoring Trends and Determinants on Cardiovascular Diseases (MONICA) Augsburg Survey 1984/1985, and who were free of diabetes at baseline. Incident cases of type 2 diabetes were assessed using follow-up questionnaires in 1987/1988, 1997/1998 and 2002/2003 and were validated with medical records. Gender-specific hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated from Cox proportional hazard models. RESULTS: A total of 172 cases of incident type 2 diabetes amongst men and 109 amongst women were registered during a mean follow-up period of 14.7 years. In both sexes the risk of type 2 diabetes increased with increasing levels of serum GGT. After multivariable adjustment HRs for incident type 2 diabetes across GGT categories (<25th, <50th, <75th, <87.5th and > or =87.5th percentiles) were 1.0, 1.81, 2.37, 3.41 and 4.24 (P-value for trend <0.0001) in men and 1.0, 1.42, 1.48, 1.95 and 2.41 (P-value for trend 0.0179) in women. Obesity appeared to be more strongly associated with type 2 diabetes in women with GGT equal or greater than the median compared to women with GGT below the median. However, in men the association between obesity and type 2 diabetes was almost identical in the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: The GGT is an important predictor for incident type 2 diabetes in men and women from the general population.

The MONICA Augsburg surveys--basis for prospective cohort studies.

As part of the WHO MONICA project three population-representative surveys were conducted in the study region of Augsburg since 1984/85 to describe time trends of classical cardiovascular risk factors. These surveys provide relevant baseline-information for prospective health outcome studies. Three independent study populations were recruited in 1984/85 (S1: age 25 - 64 years), 1989/90 (S2: age 25 - 74 years), and 1994/95 (S3: age 25 - 74 years) by a two-stage cluster sampling, with random sampling for the city of Augsburg, and a random selection of 16 communities by community size in the two adjacent counties. In the three surveys, 13,427 persons have had 13,818 study participations, since some subjects were by chance sampled for more than one survey. From 1984 to 1995, no trends in hypertension could be observed, but an increase of 15 % (men) resp. 30 % (women) in dyslipidaemia (total/HDL cholesterol ratio > or = five). Cigarette smoking decreased in 55 to 64 year old men und increased in 35 to 64-year old women. The predictive impact for incident Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI) per 100,000 person years is highest for cigarette smoking (men 880, women 360), followed by dyslipidemia (men 739, women 318) and systolic blood pressure > or = 160 mm Hg (men 658, women 276). By 31st December 2002 1,551 persons (1,031 men, 520 women) had died. The surveys will be used for further gender-specific cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses with special focus on classical, new laboratory and genetic risk factors as determinants of mortality, incident AMI and incident type 2 diabetes, to improve preventive strategies.

KORA--a research platform for population based health research.

KORA (Cooperative Health Research in the Region Augsburg) is a regional research platform for population-based surveys and subsequent follow-up studies in the fields of epidemiology, health economics, and health care research. KORA was established in 1996 to continue and expand the MONICA project in Augsburg, including the Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI) Registry. The available pool of study participants allows for cohort, case-control and family studies. We present the KORA infrastructure, aspects of data management and quality control, and the concept of cooperative research. The increasing use of the MONICA/KORA cohorts for a variety of research topics, with a recent focus on genetic epidemiology, indicates the attractiveness of this concept.

The population-based acute myocardial infarction (AMI) registry of the MONICA/KORA study region of Augsburg.

The population-based MONICA/KORA registry of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) for the study population of Augsburg was established in 1984. The major task was the description of time trends of AMI morbidity, ischaemic heart disease (IHD) mortality per 100,000 population and their underlying determinants. Results of 18 years of registration are presented stratified by gender and discussed from a public health point of view. From 1985 through 2002 a total number of 17,884 cases of AMI and IHD deaths (12,798 male; 5,086 female cases; age 25-74 years) were registered and validated according to MONICA rules. In the course of time, IHD mortality per 100,000 population decreased from 280 to 168 in men and from 88 to 54 in women; AMI morbidity decreased from 542 to 404 in men, and from 171 to 122 AMI in women. The important decrease of IHD mortality was mainly explained by a decline of recurrent events and a reduction of 28-day case fatality (men from 52 % to 42 %, women from 52 % to 44 %) as result of an intensified invasive reperfusion therapy and evidence-based drug medication. The presented results show positive developments, but underscore the necessity for increased primary prevention.

[Temporal changes and determinants of smoking habits with respect to prevention]. / Zeitliche Veränderungen und Einflussfaktoren des Rauchverhaltens im Hinblick auf die Umsetzung von Präventionsmassnahmen.

Smoking habits are seen as one of the most important risk factors in developed countries for the incidence of cardiovascular diseases and as the major single cause of premature death. The present study analysed smoking habits in participants of the MONICA-Surveys S1 (1984/85), S2 (1989/90) and S3 (1994/95) concerning prevalence, associated factors, time trends and preventive consequences. An essential aim of these studies was to identify risk groups, that should be addressed in prevention campaigns leading to a reduction of the high mortality due to cardiovascular diseases. The participants of the MONICA-Survey S3 (1994/95) had lower proportions of smokers (31.2 % for men and 22.0 % for women) as compared to estimated proportions of the entire German population (National health survey 1998: 37.4 % und 29.9 %). Women had always a lower proportion of smokers than men in each age group or sociodemographic factor. Strong associations of smoking habits with educational levels, family status and occupational position were observed for men and women. A positive time trend with decreasing smoking prevalence was determined for men. In contrast, an increase in the prevalence of female smokers was observed. The intention to change smoking habits was associated with different factors in men and women. For men, mainly "external" factors like social status or physical activity were important. Women seemed to be more influenced by "internal" matters (somatic complaints, negative self-rated health). Sex-, age- and educational status-specific activities and recommendations are considered to be essential for targeting different person groups in a more focused way.

Ankle-brachial index and peripheral arterial disease.

Patients with peripheral arterial disease including those with intermittent claudication have a high risk for cardiovascular and cerebrovascular morbidity and mortality. The outcome of patients with intermittent claudication is less limited by local complications in the leg than by the systemic complications of coronary and cerebral vessels. About 30 % of these patients will die within 5 years, three-quarters of them due to vascular events. Analyses using data of the KORA Study 2004/2005 (F3), a follow-up examination of the participants of the MONICA Survey 1994/95 (S3), will try to identify biochemical as well as genetic risk factors for peripheral arterial disease. The anti-atherogenic apolipoprotein A-IV will be one of our candidates of interest.

Systemic low-grade inflammation and risk of coronary heart disease: results from the MONICA/KORA Augsburg cohort studies.

Atherosclerosis is characterised by a non-specific local inflammatory process accompanied by a systemic response. A number of prospective studies in initially healthy subjects and in patients with manifest atherosclerosis have now convincingly demonstrated a strong and independent association between even slightly elevated concentrations of various systemic markers of inflammation (plasma viscosity, C-reactive protein [CRP], and other acute phase reactants) and a number of cardiovascular endpoints. Presently, CRP, the classical acute phase protein, seems to be the marker of choice for the clinical situation. Initial evidence suggests that measurement of CRP adds to global risk assessment based on the Framingham risk score. The recent AHA/CDC consensus report recommends the measurement of CRP in asymptomatic subjects at intermediate risk for future coronary events (10-year risk of 10-20 %) and in selected patients after an acute coronary syndrome. Whether CRP shall alter treatment strategies in subjects without clinically manifest atherosclerosis is presently being tested in a large randomised clinical trial. In addition, recent research has suggested that CRP may not only be a risk marker, but may be directly involved in the pathogenesis of atherothrombosis. However, there are other emerging biomarkers. Lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A (2) (Lp-PLA (2)), an enzyme produced by monocytes/macrophages, T-cells and mast cells was found to generate proinflammatory and proatherogenic molecules from oxidised LDL. We tested the association of these new biomarkers with traditional risk factors and their ability to predict incident coronary events, using the MONICA/KORA database.

[Case-cohort studies: an effective design for the investigation of biomarkers as risk factors for chronic diseases--demonstrated by the example of the MONICA/KORA Augsburg Case-Cohort Study 1984-2002]. / Fall-Kohorten-Studien: Ein effektives Design zur Untersuchung von Biomarkern als Risikofaktoren für chronische Krankheiten -- Darstellung am Beispiel der MONICA/KORA Augsburg Fall-Kohorten-Studie 1984-2002.

As it is often not possible to determine specific measures of exposure in all participants of a prospective cohort study due to financial or other restrictions, new study designs have been developed. The aim of these designs is to obtain valid results even though expensive measurements are restricted to a limited number of participants of the original cohort study. The case-cohort study is a design that has recently become interesting as an alternative to the well known nested case-control study. The following article describes the case-cohort design considering as an example data from the MONICA/KORA Augsburg cohort study 1984-2002 and the outcomes of type 2 diabetes mellitus and acute myocardial infarction. Furthermore, results obtained in the full cohort for selected exposures are compared with results obtained in the case-cohort study.

Type 2 diabetes mellitus in Augsburg--an epidemiological overview.

This article provides an overview of the prevalence of type 2 diabetes and the antidiabetic treatment over a 17 year study period. The causes of the disease and the impact of diabetes on cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity are discussed. Furthermore, changes in lifestyle and risk factor profile in persons with diabetes are reported. We present data from the MONICA/KORA surveys S1-S4 conducted between 1984/85 and 1999/2001 in the region of Augsburg, Southern Germany and the Augsburg Myocardial Infarction Registry. Contrary to most studies from other countries, in the 25 to 74 year old Augsburg population the prevalence of known diabetes did not increase over the last years. Obesity and decreased physical activity are the two main lifestyle related risk factors for type 2 diabetes. Recently, further modifiable risk factors such as smoking and hypertension have been associated with the development of type 2 diabetes in the Augsburg population. Consistent with recommendations to intensify glucose control in diabetic persons the diabetes treatment continuously improved during the study period. However, health status of persons with diabetes is far from optimal in the Augsburg population suggesting that recommendations for primary prevention of CVD in diabetic persons were not sufficiently put into practice until 1999/2001. Furthermore, data from the MONICA/KORA Augsburg Myocardial infarction registry underline the challenge that in particular men and women with diabetes should receive intensive preventive interventions proven to reduce CVD risk. In conclusion, data from the MONICA/KORA Augsburg studies suggest that it should become an important public health priority to prevent diabetes mellitus.

Cost-effectiveness of type 2 diabetes screening: results from recently published studies.

Type 2 diabetes screening is recommended by various international diabetes associations. We conducted a literature research to identify and describe systematically recently published cost effectiveness analyses (CEA) for type 2 diabetes screening. Three analyses were included. One of them was conducted in Germany, based on the data of the KORA survey S4 (1999/2001). Two studies came from the US. The German as well as one of the US studies evaluated cost per detected diabetic case as main outcome. In contrast to the US study, the German study considered incomplete participation in the screening programs as baseline case. HbA1 c testing combined with the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was more expensive than OGTT or fasting glucose testing, but also most effective in detecting cases, due to high participation in this screening strategy. The second US study investigated the lifetime cost effectiveness of type 2 diabetes screening, based on a Markov model to calculate cost per quality-adjusted life year (QALY). Effectiveness data were derived from two large intervention studies in clinically diagnosed (not identified by screening) diabetic subjects. The authors conclude that type 2 diabetes screening is cost effective, in particular targeted screening in elderly hypertensive subjects. Diabetes screening may be cost effective. However, the effectiveness of early detection and treatment of type 2 diabetes has not yet been shown, and data regarding the course of early detected diabetes are lacking so far. In the future, the most important question is whether type 2 diabetes screening and early treatment is effective with respect to clinical outcomes.

Association of the 103I MC4R allele with decreased body mass in 7937 participants of two population based surveys.

BACKGROUND: The melanocortin-4-receptor gene (MC4R) is part of the melanocortinergic pathway that controls energy homeostasis. In a recent meta-analysis, the MC4R V103I (rs2229616) polymorphism was shown to be associated with body weight regulation. Although no functional differences between the isoleucine comprising receptor and the wild type receptor have been detected as yet, this meta-analysis of 14 case-control studies reported a mild negative association with obesity (odds ratio (OR) 0.69, p = 0.03). However, evidence in a large population based study in a homogeneous population and a significant estimate of the change in quantitative measures of obesity is still lacking. METHODS: We analysed the data of two surveys of a white population with the same high quality study protocol, giving a total of 7937 participants. RESULTS: By linear regression, we found a significant decrease of 0.52 body mass index (BMI) units (95% confidence interval (CI) -0.02 to -1.03, p = 0.043) for carriers of the heterozygote rs2229616G/A genotype, which was observed in 3.7% of the participants. Logistic regression yielded a significantly negative association of the MC4R variant with "above average weight" (BMI > or = median BMI) yielding an OR of 0.75 (95% CI 0.59 to 0.95 p = 0.017). We obtained similar results comparing obese (BMI > or =30 kg/m2, World Health Organization results for 1997) with non-obese (BMI < 30 kg/m2) participants. The results were found for both sexes and each survey separately, and did not depend on the modelling of age, sex, or survey effects. CONCLUSIONS: Our study confirms previous findings of a meta-analysis that the relatively infrequent G/A genotype of the V103I MC4R polymorphism is negatively associated with above average weight and obesity in population based original data of 7937 participants, and extends previous findings by showing for the first time a significantly lower BMI in individuals carrying the infrequent allele of this MC4R variant.

Leisure time physical activity and the risk of type 2 diabetes in men and women from the general population. The MONICA/KORA Augsburg Cohort Study.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The aim of this study was to examine sex-specific associations between leisure time physical activity and incident type 2 diabetes in a representative population sample in Germany. METHODS: The study was based on 4,069 men and 4,034 women (aged 25 to 74 years) who participated in one of the three MONICA Augsburg surveys between 1984 and 1995. Subjects were free of diabetes at baseline. Incident cases of type 2 diabetes were assessed in 1998 using a follow-up questionnaire. Sex-specific hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated from Cox proportional hazard models. RESULTS: A total of 145 cases of incident type 2 diabetes among men and 82 among women were registered during the mean follow-up period of 7.4 years. In both sexes, a high leisure time physical activity level was associated with a reduced risk of incident type 2 diabetes. After adjustment for confounding factors, the HR in highly active men (more than 2 h physical activity per week in summer and winter) was 0.83 (95% CI: 0.50-1.36). In contrast, highly active women had the lowest risk of type 2 diabetes even after multivariable adjustment (HR 0.24; 95% CI: 0.06-0.98). In subgroup analyses, after multivariable adjustment, the protective effect of moderate to high physical activity was significant in women with a BMI below 30 kg/m(2) (HR 0.24; 95% CI: 0.09-0.65) but not in women with a BMI of 30 kg/m(2) or higher (HR 0.97; 95% CI: 0.44-2.11). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Leisure time physical activity is effective in preventing type 2 diabetes, especially in nonobese women, in the general population.

[Classical risk factors for myocardial infarction and total mortality in the community--13-year follow-up of the MONICA Augsburg cohort study]. / Klassische Risikofaktoren für Herzinfarkt und Gesamtsterblichkeit in der Bevölkerung. 13-Jahres-Follow-up der MONICA Augsburg-Kohortenstudie.

PURPOSE: The MONICA (MONItoring of trends and determinants in CArdiovascular disease) project in the region of Augsburg, Southern Germany, is the first population-based cohort study in Germany investigating the association of the risk factors hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and smoking with incident myocardial infarction and total mortality, and to assess their impact at the population level. METHODS: At baseline, 1074 men and 1013 women aged 45-64 years were randomly selected from the population in the Augsburg region and extensively interviewed and examined regarding their cardiovascular risk profile. They were traced over 13 years from 1984-1997. We calculated incidence rates, hazard rate ratios, population attributable risks (PAR), and rate advancement periods (RAP) according to the three risk factors and their combinations. RESULTS: Among men, 107 myocardial infarctions and 204 total mortality events occurred during the study period; in women the number of total mortality cases was 102. The three classical risk factors were associated with incident myocardial infarction in men and with total mortality in men and women over a period of 13 years. Heavily smoking men had a particularly high risk of total mortality (HRR=4.2; 95% CI 2.5-7.0) and myocardial infarction (HRR=3.8; 1.9-7.6). Men with treated hypertension were at equally high risk for both total mortality (HRR=2.4; 1.5-3.7) and myocardial infarction (HRR=2.4; 1.3-4.3). In women, treated hypertension (HRR=2.5; 1.5-4.1) and hypercholesterolemia (HRR=2.0; 1.2-3.3) were most strongly related to total mortality. Regarding the association of risk factor combinations and myocardial infarction among men, the presence of all three risk factors simultaneously (HRR=7.9; 3.6-17.3) and the combination smoking/hypercholesterolemia (HRR=5.8; 3.2-10.5) were particularly hazardous. In total, the three risk factors contributed 54% of the burden of myocardial infarction in the male study population. The rate advancement periods for myocardial infarction related to treated hypertension, hypercholesterolemia and heavy smoking were 10.5, 5.8 and 15.8 years, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm the outstanding impact of the classical risk factors on myocardial infarction and total mortality in a southern German population. Coronary heart disease is largely preventable through risk factor reduction. Therefore, risk factor counselling, education and treatment are crucial to prevent people from developing the disease or dying prematurely.

High prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes mellitus in Southern Germany: target populations for efficient screening. The KORA survey 2000.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: To estimate the prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes mellitus, impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) and impaired fasting glucose (IFG), and their relations with cardiovascular risk factors in the general population aged 55 to 74 years in Southern Germany. METHODS: Oral glucose tolerance tests were carried out in a random sample of 1353 subjects aged 55 to 74 years participating in the KORA (Cooperative Health Research in the Region of Augsburg) Survey 2000. Prevalences of glucose tolerance categories (1999 WHO criteria) were adjusted for sample probabilities. The numbers needed to screen (NNTS) to identify one person with undiagnosed diabetes were estimated from age-adjusted logistic regression models. RESULTS: Sample design-based prevalences of known and unknown diabetes, IGT, and IFG were 9.0%, 9.7%, 16.8%, 9.8% in men, and 7.9%, 6.9%, 16.0%, 4.5% in women, respectively. In both sexes, participants with undiagnosed diabetes had higher BMI, waist circumference, systolic blood pressure, triglycerides, uric acid, and lower HDL-cholesterol than normoglycaemic subjects. A combination of abdominal adiposity, hypertension, and parental diabetes in men resulted in a NNTS of 2.9 (95%CI: 2.0-4.6). In women, the combination of increased triglycerides, hypertension and parental diabetes history yielded a NNTS of 3.2 (95%CI: 2.2-5.1). CONCLUSION/INTERPRETATION: About 40% of the population aged 55 to 74 years in the Augsburg region have disturbed glucose tolerance or diabetes. Half of the total cases with diabetes are undiagnosed. Cardiovascular risk factors worsen among glucose tolerance categories, indicating the need for screening and prevention. Screening for undiagnosed diabetes could be most efficient in individuals with abdominal adiposity (men), hypertriglyceridaemia (women), hypertension, and parental diabetes history.