Dental Pain in Cats: A Prospective 6-Month Study.

Dental pathology is among the most ubiquitous diseases in cats of all ages. Dental pain is yet to be fully understood in cats and therefore its presence is often missed. To better understand feline dental disease as a pain trigger during routine examination and whether disease severity correlates to the degree of pain, a 6-month prospective study in a cats' only veterinary hospital in Portugal was conducted. Sixty-four cats that randomly presented for different clinical procedures were evaluated. Dental and periodontal abnormalities (primary dental parameters, PDP), as well as clinical signs related to dental pain (secondary dental parameters, SDP), were assessed. All cats underwent an oral cavity examination, upon which, the Feline Acute Pain Scale from Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital (CPS), was used in order to assess pain. Six PDP (periodontal disease, gingival index, calculus index, tooth resorption, tooth fracture and missing teeth) and five SDP (mouth discomfort, halitosis, hypersalivation, difficulty in holding food and several attempts at prehension of food), were compared with CPS pain scores. All SDP were significantly associated to higher CPS pain scores (p < 0.05). The number of missing teeth was significantly associated to higher CPS pain scores (p < 0.0001). A trend was observed between higher CPS pain scores and tooth resorption (p = 0.08). This study concluded that cats with dental disease feel pain during clinical examination and the pain increases as the severity of the disease progresses.

Sex Differences in Mouse Exploratory Behaviour to Fel d 1, a Cat ABP-Like Protein.

Fel d 1 is a cat protein abundantly released and found in their habitat and is closely related to mouse androgen-binding proteins (ABPs). We hypothesized that mice have developed chemical communication mechanisms to detect and avoid this protein. We tested purified natural Fel d 1, a fox faeces molecule (TMT) as a positive control, and a negative control (purified water) in three different mouse groups (n = 14 each) to evaluate exploratory behaviour and stress responses. The mice did not show clear avoidance or stress responses to Fel d 1. Our results demonstrated a sex-treatment interaction for Fel d 1, with males spending more time in the areas treated with Fel d 1 than in the untreated areas (p = 0.018). This sex-treated area interaction was also not observed for either the blank or TMT. These results suggest that Fel d 1 from domestic cats could be recognized differently by male and female mice. These sex differences could be linked to the sexual role of ABP proteins and the ABP-like characteristics of Fel d 1.

Neurohormonal Profiles of Assistance Dogs Compared to Pet Dogs: What Is the Impact of Different Lifestyles?

Assistance dogs must manage stress efficiently because they are involved in challenging tasks. Their welfare is currently a fundamental issue. This preliminary study aimed to compare assistance dogs (AD; n = 22) with pet dogs (PD; n = 24), using blood neuromodulator indicators to help find biomarkers that can improve the AD breeding, selection, training, and welfare monitoring. Both populations originated from different breeds, are of different ages, and had different lifestyles. Basal peripheral concentrations of prolactin (PRL), serotonin (5-HT), free (fOT) and total (tOT) oxytocin were measured by immunoassays. Multiple linear regressions were performed to assess the effect of activity, age, sex, and their interactions on these parameters. Correlations between neurohormonal levels were analyzed. No interactions were significant. fOT and tOT concentrations were significantly influenced by age (p < 0.0001 and p = 0.0002, respectively) and dogs' activity (p = 0.0006 and p = 0.0277, respectively). A tendency was observed for age effect on PRL (p = 0.0625) and 5-HT (p = 0.0548), as well as for sex effect on tOT (p = 0.0588). PRL concentrations were heterogenous among AD. fOT and tOT were significantly but weakly correlated (Pearson's r = 0.34; p = 0.04). Blood prolactin, serotonin, and oxytocin may represent biomarkers to assess workload and chronic stress-related responses in ADs and eventually improve their selection and training.

Effect of handling and crowding on the susceptibility of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) to Lepeophtheirus salmonis (Krøyer) copepodids.

Lepeophtheirus salmonis is an ectoparasite causing economic concerns in Atlantic salmon farming. Salmon lice infestation management methods can be stressful and impact fish welfare. This work investigated the stress effect on the attachment of L. salmonis copepodids to Atlantic salmon through two approaches: (a) handling by netting and air exposure (acute stress), and (b) crowding with restricted surface access in a tank (chronic stress). In the first experiment, we compared the number of attached L. salmonis and cortisol levels between a group of handled salmon and a control group. In the second experiment, a group of densely packed salmon was compared to a control group based on the number of attached copepodids, cortisol levels and neutrophil:lymphocyte ratios. Handled salmon showed significantly higher plasma cortisol levels (p < .001) and more attached copepodids (p = .01) than control salmon. Conversely, the cortisol level and number of attached copepodids were not significantly different between the densely packed and control salmon (p > .05). The neutrophil:lymphocyte ratio was significantly higher (p = .0014) in the densely packed salmon than in the control salmon. Handling salmon increased their risk of infestation by L. salmonis. This has implications for reinfestation rates following delousing treatments in commercial salmon aquaculture, which often involve crowding and handling salmon.

Working Smarter Not Harder: Oxytocin Increases Domestic Dogs' (Canis familiaris) Accuracy, but Not Attempts, on an Object Choice Task.

The neuropeptide oxytocin (OT) has been shown to enhance dogs' ability to perform an object choice task (OCT) involving the use of human pointing cues, when delivered intranasally. This study aimed at further investigating whether OT enhances task performance by increasing choices made, or by increasing correctness of choices made, and to compare these treatment effects to dog appeasing pheromone (DAP), known to balance emotional activation in dogs. Hence, we compared OCT performance between three groups of dogs: (i) dogs administered OT and a sham collar, (ii) dogs administered a saline placebo and a DAP collar, and (iii) control dogs administered a saline placebo and a sham collar. All three groups consisted of a combination of male and female pet dogs and assistance-dogs-in-training currently living with a volunteer carer. The study also evaluated the effect of intranasal OT and/or DAP on plasma levels of OT, and prolactin; which has previously been linked with anxiety in dogs. The dogs' emotional state was measured using the Emotional Disorders Evaluation in Dogs (EDED) scale. The owners'/carers' degree of anxious- and avoidant-style attachment to their dogs was accessed using the Pet Attachment Questionnaire (PAQ). Interesting descriptive data appeared for both treatment groups. Particularly, in OT group, we obtained significant results demonstrating that intranasal OT enhances OCT performance in dogs compared to control, by increasing the percentage of correct choices, but not the number of choices, made. Results also support that the mode of action of intranasal OT is via direct access to the brain and not via the blood, since no elevation of plasma OT (or prolactin) levels were observed after intranasal administration in this study. Similarly, DAP application did not significantly alter OT or prolactin peripheral concentrations. Several differences were observed between fostered and pet dogs, namely: fostered dogs demonstrated higher levels of serum prolactin, made more choices on the OCT compared to pet dogs but were not more likely to be correct, and were fostered by carers with higher avoidant attachment scores than pet dog owners. These findings implicate consideration of potential carer and training consequences for assistance dogs.

The Impact of Equine-Assisted Therapy on Equine Behavioral and Physiological Responses.

Equine-assisted therapies (EATs) have been widely used in the treatment of patients with mental or physical conditions. However, studies on the influence of equine-assisted therapy (EAT) on equine welfare are very recent, and the need for further research is often highlighted. The aim of this study was to investigate whether EAT creates negative or positive emotions in horses, and the influence of patients' expectations (one group of patients had physical and psychological expectations and one group of patients had only psychological expectations) on horses' emotional responses. Fifty-eight pairs (patient-horse) were involved in this study. Behaviors and heart rate variability (HRV) data were collected during a resting phase, a preparation phase in which the patients brushed and saddled the horse, and a working phase. Behaviors and HRV were compared between phases and among the groups of patients. Our results suggested that the EAT in this study was neither a negative nor a positive event. EATs with patients who had both physical and psychological expectations were more challenging for horses than those with patients who had only psychological expectations. Further research should focus on providing horses with positive stimulation and reinforcement to understand whether a positive association with EAT can be achieved.

Assessment of Commercially Available Immunoassays to Measure Glucocorticoid Metabolites in African Grey Parrot (Psittacus Erithacus) Droppings: A Ready Tool for Non-Invasive Monitoring of Stress.

Despite being undomesticated, African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus) are commonly found in captivity, in zoos or as pets. Captivity can be an ongoing stressor. Non-invasive glucocorticoid metabolites (GCM) measurements from bird droppings are of interest for assessing stress but require careful evaluation in each newly studied species. This study describes the assessment of such methods for Psittacus erithacus to provide tools for evaluating stress and monitoring welfare. We evaluated 12 method combinations of GCM extraction and enzyme immunoassay (EIA) from a pool of African Grey Parrot droppings, through the validation of several analytical parameters. Then, Heterophil: Lymphocyte Ratios (HLR), another reliable stress marker, were determined and correlated to individual dropping GCM concentrations for 29 birds to determine whether the method is biologically relevant. We found that the best procedure to measure GCM in African Grey Parrot droppings is a combination of 60% methanol extraction measured using a Corticosterone EIA kit (Cayman Chemical Company) from fresh or dry droppings. The establishment of a significant correlation (Pearson coefficient correlation = 0.48; p = 0.0082) between HLR and GCM in the studied population confirmed the method biological relevance. This method can thus be applied to assess stress in Psittacus erithacus and support welfare monitoring in zoo populations.

Protection of horse ears against Simulid parasitism: Efficacy of a mammal semiochemical solution over 10hours.

Hematophagous insects can be vectors of pathogens and cause significant economic loss in zootechnical production. Among biting insects, many dipteran species feed on horse blood. The black fly (Diptera: Simuliidae) group, is responsible for several disorders in horses and inflicts painful bites that lead to undesirable behaviours in horses, particularly when bites occur in sensitive areas such as the inner ear. A field study was conducted in a French equestrian center during which a semiochemical was applied on horses' ears to assess repellent efficacy against simulid infestation. During the first phase of the study, efficacy was evaluated over a one hour period. Then, during the second phase of the study, persistency of the effect was tested at 8, 9 and 10h after application. The results of the study's first phase showed 90% efficacy over one hour, with 121.5 insects found in control ears and 12 insects in treated ears (p=0.001). In the second phase of the study, a total amount of 411 insects were observed on control ears whereas only 2 insects were observed on treated ears (p<0.0001); the treatment remained over 98% effective up to 10hours after application. When using a slow release excipient, this semiochemical may offer at least 10h of protection against simulids. This safe, efficient, and long lasting protection could help horses and their owners to manage simulid parasitism.

Pathology and behaviour in feline medicine: investigating the link between vomeronasalitis and aggression.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to investigate if the feline vomeronasal organ (VNO) can be affected by inflammatory lesions and if these changes are associated with behavioural alterations. METHODS: VNOs from 20 cats were sampled during necropsy, submitted for routine tissue processing and stained with haematoxylin and eosin for histopathological evaluation. For the 20 cats, data on the presence of aggressive behaviours towards cats or humans were collected by questionnaire survey at the point of death. Inflammatory lesions were classified depending on the duration of the process as acute or chronic, both in vomeronasal sensory epithelium (VNSE) and in non-sensory epithelium (NSE). Fisher's exact test was used to compare VNO inflammation with behavioural data. RESULTS: The VNSE was inflamed in 11/20 VNOs (55%) while the NSE was inflamed in 13/20 (65%). Overall, the VNO was affected by inflammation in 14/20 (70%) cats, and all the lesions were classified as chronic. Five out of 20 cats (25%) had documented intraspecific aggressive behaviours and 8/20 (40%) had shown aggression towards humans. Fisher's exact test showed a statistically significant correlation between inflammation of the VNSE and intraspecific aggression (P = 0.038). No statistically correlations were observed between VNSE inflammation and aggression towards humans and between NSE inflammation and aggression towards cats or humans. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: Our results show, for the first time, the existence of vomeronasalitis in animals and its possible association with intraspecific aggressive behaviours. The inflammatory microenvironment could impair VNSE functionality, causing intraspecific communication alterations, probably through a reduction in chemical communication action and perception. Owing to the pivotal role of the VNO in the social life of cats and other species, this report provides a rationale to further investigate this disease in relation to a variety of behavioural disorders.

Influence of emotional balance during a learning and recall test in horses (Equus caballus).

Modern day horse-human relationships entail different types of sport and riding activities, which all require learning. In evaluating the interaction between learning and emotions, studying normal coping strategies or adaptive responses to the surroundings is critical. 34 horses were involved in a cognitive test, in the absence of physical effort, to analyze performance, as well as physiological and behavioral responses related to learning, memorization and recall, associated to the capacity to reverse a learned model. Synthetic Equine Appeasing Pheromone (EAP) was used in 17 horses in order to modulate their emotional state and evaluate differences in cognitive-emotional response during cognitive effort in comparison to the control group (placebo group). Both groups showed statistically significant changes in heart rate during the test, indicating emotional and physio-cognitive activation. The EAP group produced fewer errors and made more correct choices, showing behaviors related to increased attention, with less influence from environmental stimuli. The capacity to learn to learn, as shown in the bibliography, allows animals to establish conceptual learning, when a normal or positive emotional state (in this case modulated by semiochemicals) is used to control limbic system activation and, consequently, decrease stressful/fearful reactions, resulting in better learning capacities during the cognitive test.

Chemical compounds related to the predation risk posed by malacophagous ground beetles alter self-maintenance behavior of naive slugs (Deroceras reticulatum).

Evidence that terrestrial gastropods are able to detect chemical cues from their predators is obvious yet scarce, despite the scientific relevance of the topic to enhancing our knowledge in this area. This study examines the influence of cuticular extracts from predacious ground beetles (Carabus auratus, Carabus hispanus, Carabus nemoralis and Carabus coriaceus), and a neutral insect species (Musca domestica) on the shelter-seeking behavior of naive slugs (Deroceras reticulatum). Slugs, known to have a negative phototactic response, were exposed to light, prompting them to make a choice between either a shelter treated with a cuticular extract or a control shelter treated with pure ethyl alcohol. Their behavioral responses were recorded for one hour in order to determine their first shelter choice, their final position, and to compare the percentage of time spent in the control shelters with the time spent in the treated shelters.The test proved to be very effective: slugs spent most of the experiment in a shelter. They spent significantly more time in the control shelter than in the shelter treated with either C. nemoralis (Z = 2.43; p = 0.0151; Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test) or C. coriaceus cuticular extracts (Z = 3.31; p<0.01; Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test), with a seemingly stronger avoidance effect when presented with C. coriaceus extracts. The other cuticular extracts had no significant effect on any of the behavioral items measured. Although it cannot be entirely excluded that the differences observed, are partly due to the intrinsic properties of the vehicle employed to build the cuticular extracts, the results suggest that slugs can innately discriminate amongst different potential predators and adjust their behavioral response according to the relevance of the threat conveyed by their predator's chemical cues.

Scratching behaviour and its features: a questionnaire-based study in an Italian sample of domestic cats.

Scratching behaviour in cats is described as a normal expression of the feline ethogram, having different possible purposes related to visual and chemical communication. During behavioural consultations owners often mention scratching as an additional problem. This preliminary study aimed to understand the characteristics of this complex behaviour by examining the variables displayed by a sample of the Italian feline population using multiple correspondence analysis. One hundred and twenty-eight cats were screened by means of a questionnaire to identify features of their scratching behaviour. Our data showed the importance of both the presence/absence of a scratching post in the cat's living area and its relationship to marking. When a scratching post is present in a cat's living area, the cat appears to use it. Some aspects related to sex, neutering, age and environmental characteristics may modify the expression of scratching as a marking behaviour. Research has led to increased knowledge of this behaviour and may help veterinarians in describing to owners why it is important for cats to express scratching behaviour in their environment. Such information could help veterinarians and owners to recognise normal and problematic scratching behaviours.

Immunological differences in the global release of the major cat allergen Fel d 1 are influenced by sex and behaviour.

The biological function of Fel d 1, the major cat allergen released in the environment, is still unclear despite studies suggesting a putative role in chemical communication. Structural and immunological polymorphisms of Fel d 1 have been described. This study examined how Fel d 1 immunological polymorphism may have a physiological origin by estimating a potential relationship with the sex of cats and cat-human interactions. Samples from bath washes of 21 cats were screened to study antibody binding to Fel d 1 using an ELISA. Personality and Tolerance Handling scores were used to assess the behaviour of the cats. In the washes, Fel d 1 concentrations were significantly lower in females than in males (P<0.05). Slopes from the ELISA dose-dependent curves varied among the cats: males secreted Fel d 1 variants with higher antibody recognition than females (P<0.01). Females that were aggressive and difficult to handle displayed a diminished slope value, and therefore a weaker Fel d 1 immunoreactivity in global washes, compared to females that were sociable (P=0.09) and easy to handle (P=0.07). This study shows a variable immunological polymorphism of Fel d 1 within a cat population, particularly between males and females, and this polymorphism appears to be related to cat-human interactions.