Organoid models of breathing disorders reveal patterning defect of hindbrain neurons caused by PHOX2B-PARMs.

Retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN) neurons in the brainstem regulate the ventilatory response to hypercarbia. It is unclear how PHOX2B-polyalanine repeat mutations (PHOX2B-PARMs) alter the function of PHOX2B and perturb the formation of RTN neurons. Here, we generated human brainstem organoids (HBSOs) with RTN-like neurons from human pluripotent stem cells. Single-cell transcriptomics revealed that expression of PHOX2B+7Ala PARM alters the differentiation trajectories of the hindbrain neurons and hampers the formation of the RTN-like neurons in HBSOs. With the unguided cerebral organoids (HCOs), PHOX2B+7Ala PARM interrupted the patterning of PHOX2B+ neurons with dysregulation of Hedgehog pathway and HOX genes. With complementary use of HBSOs and HCOs with a patient and two mutant induced pluripotent stem cell lines carrying different polyalanine repetition in PHOX2B, we further defined the association between the length of polyalanine repetition and malformation of RTN-respiratory center and demonstrated the potential toxic gain of function of PHOX2B-PARMs, highlighting the uniqueness of these organoid models for disease modeling.

Organoid cultures for cancer modeling.

Organoids derived from adult stem cells (ASCs) and pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are important preclinical models for studying cancer and developing therapies. Here, we review primary tissue-derived and PSC-derived cancer organoid models and detail how they have the potential to inform personalized medical approaches in different organ contexts and contribute to the understanding of early carcinogenic steps, cancer genomes, and biology. We also compare the differences between ASC- and PSC-based cancer organoid systems, discuss their limitations, and highlight recent improvements to organoid culture approaches that have helped to make them an even better representation of human tumors.

Transcriptomics of Hirschsprung disease patient-derived enteric neural crest cells reveals a role for oxidative phosphorylation.

Hirschsprung disease is characterized by the absence of enteric neurons caused by the defects of enteric neural crest cells, leading to intestinal obstruction. Here, using induced pluripotent stem cell-based models of Hirschsprung and single-cell transcriptomic analysis, we identify a gene set of 118 genes commonly dysregulated in all patient enteric neural crest cells, and suggest HDAC1 may be a key regulator of these genes. Furthermore, upregulation of RNA splicing mediators and enhanced alternative splicing events are associated with severe form of Hirschsprung. In particular, the higher inclusion rate of exon 9 in PTBP1 and the perturbed expression of a PTBP1-target, PKM, are significantly enriched in these patient cells, and associated with the defective oxidative phosphorylation and impaired neurogenesis. Hedgehog-induced oxidative phosphorylation significantly enhances the survival and differentiation capacity of patient cells. In sum, we define various factors associated with Hirschsprung pathogenesis and demonstrate the implications of oxidative phosphorylation in enteric neural crest development and HSCR pathogenesis.

Ciliary protein Kif7 regulates Gli and Ezh2 for initiating the neuronal differentiation of enteric neural crest cells during development.

Gastrointestinal motility disorders occur frequently in patients with ciliopathy, but the underlying genetic link is unclear. The ciliary protein Kif7 can positively or negatively regulate Hedgehog signaling in different cellular contexts. Mice with neural crest cell (NCC)­specific Kif7 deficiency show a marked reduction of enteric NOS+ inhibitory neurons. Malformation of enteric nervous system (ENS) causes growth retardation and gut motility defect in mice. Mechanistically, Kif7 inhibits Gli2 in enteric NCCs (ENCCs), where Gli2 positively regulates the expression of Ezh2 by inhibiting the miR124-mediated suppression. In developing ENCCs, Ezh2 is a master regulator of 102 core genes underlying ENCC differentiation. Deletion of Gli2 or inhibition of Ezh2 favors the neurogenic lineage differentiation of mouse and human ENCCs and rescues the ENS defects of Kif7 mutants. In summary, Hedgehog signal, via Kif7-Gli-Ezh2, controls the timely expressions of the core genes to mediate the differentiation of ENCCs.

Whole-genome analysis of noncoding genetic variations identifies multiscale regulatory element perturbations associated with Hirschsprung disease.

It is widely recognized that noncoding genetic variants play important roles in many human diseases, but there are multiple challenges that hinder the identification of functional disease-associated noncoding variants. The number of noncoding variants can be many times that of coding variants; many of them are not functional but in linkage disequilibrium with the functional ones; different variants can have epistatic effects; different variants can affect the same genes or pathways in different individuals; and some variants are related to each other not by affecting the same gene but by affecting the binding of the same upstream regulator. To overcome these difficulties, we propose a novel analysis framework that considers convergent impacts of different genetic variants on protein binding, which provides multiscale information about disease-associated perturbations of regulatory elements, genes, and pathways. Applying it to our whole-genome sequencing data of 918 short-segment Hirschsprung disease patients and matched controls, we identify various novel genes not detected by standard single-variant and region-based tests, functionally centering on neural crest migration and development. Our framework also identifies upstream regulators whose binding is influenced by the noncoding variants. Using human neural crest cells, we confirm cell stage-specific regulatory roles of three top novel regulatory elements on our list, respectively in the RET, RASGEF1A, and PIK3C2B loci. In the PIK3C2B regulatory element, we further show that a noncoding variant found only in the patients affects the binding of the gliogenesis regulator NFIA, with a corresponding up-regulation of multiple genes in the same topologically associating domain.

Identification of Genes Associated With Hirschsprung Disease, Based on Whole-Genome Sequence Analysis, and Potential Effects on Enteric Nervous System Development.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hirschsprung disease, or congenital aganglionosis, is believed to be oligogenic-that is, caused by multiple genetic factors. We performed whole-genome sequence analyses of patients with Hirschsprung disease to identify genetic factors that contribute to disease development and analyzed the functional effects of these variants. METHODS: We performed whole-genome sequence analyses of 443 patients with short-segment disease, recruited from hospitals in China and Vietnam, and 493 ethnically matched individuals without Hirschsprung disease (controls). We performed genome-wide association analyses and gene-based rare-variant burden tests to identify rare and common disease-associated variants and study their interactions. We obtained induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from 4 patients with Hirschsprung disease and 2 control individuals, and we used these to generate enteric neural crest cells for transcriptomic analyses. We assessed the neuronal lineage differentiation capability of iPSC-derived enteric neural crest cells using an in vitro differentiation assay. RESULTS: We identified 4 susceptibility loci, including 1 in the phospholipase D1 gene (PLD1) (P = 7.4 × 10-7). The patients had a significant excess of rare protein-altering variants in genes previously associated with Hirschsprung disease and in the ß-secretase 2 gene (BACE2) (P = 2.9 × 10-6). The epistatic effects of common and rare variants across these loci provided a sensitized background that increased risk for the disease. In studies of the iPSCs, we observed common and distinct pathways associated with variants in RET that affect risk. In functional assays, we found variants in BACE2 to protect enteric neurons from apoptosis. We propose that alterations in BACE1 signaling via amyloid ß precursor protein and BACE2 contribute to pathogenesis of Hirschsprung disease. CONCLUSIONS: In whole-genome sequence analyses of patients with Hirschsprung disease, we identified rare and common variants associated with disease risk. Using iPSC cells, we discovered some functional effects of these variants.

Correction of Hirschsprung-Associated Mutations in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Via Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats/Cas9, Restores Neural Crest Cell Function.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hirschsprung disease is caused by failure of enteric neural crest cells (ENCCs) to fully colonize the bowel, leading to bowel obstruction and megacolon. Heterozygous mutations in the coding region of the RET gene cause a severe form of Hirschsprung disease (total colonic aganglionosis). However, 80% of HSCR patients have short-segment Hirschsprung disease (S-HSCR), which has not been associated with genetic factors. We sought to identify mutations associated with S-HSCR, and used the clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 gene editing system to determine how mutations affect ENCC function. METHODS: We created induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from 1 patient with total colonic aganglionosis (with the G731del mutation in RET) and from 2 patients with S-HSCR (without a RET mutation), as well as RET+/- and RET-/- iPSCs. IMR90-iPSC cells were used as the control cell line. Migration and differentiation capacities of iPSC-derived ENCCs were analyzed in differentiation and migration assays. We searched for mutation(s) associated with S-HSCR by combining genetic and transcriptome data from patient blood- and iPSC-derived ENCCs, respectively. Mutations in the iPSCs were corrected using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. RESULTS: ENCCs derived from all iPSC lines, but not control iPSCs, had defects in migration and neuronal lineage differentiation. RET mutations were associated with differentiation and migration defects of ENCCs in vitro. Genetic and transcriptome analyses associated a mutation in the vinculin gene (VCL M209L) with S-HSCR. CRISPR/Cas9 correction of the RET G731del and VCL M209L mutations in iPSCs restored the differentiation and migration capacities of ENCCs. CONCLUSIONS: We identified mutations in VCL associated with S-HSCR. Correction of this mutation in iPSC using CRISPR/Cas9 editing, as well as the RET G731del mutation that causes Hirschsprung disease with total colonic aganglionosis, restored ENCC function. Our study demonstrates how human iPSCs can be used to identify disease-associated mutations and determine how they affect cell functions and contribute to pathogenesis.

Identification of GLI Mutations in Patients With Hirschsprung Disease That Disrupt Enteric Nervous System Development in Mice.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hirschsprung disease is characterized by a deficit in enteric neurons, which are derived from neural crest cells (NCCs). Aberrant hedgehog signaling disrupts NCC differentiation and might cause Hirschsprung disease. We performed genetic analyses to determine whether hedgehog signaling is involved in pathogenesis. METHODS: We performed deep-target sequencing of DNA from 20 patients with Hirschsprung disease (16 men, 4 women), and 20 individuals without (controls), and searched for mutation(s) in GLI1, GLI2, GLI3, SUFU, and SOX10. Biological effects of GLI mutations were tested in luciferase reporter assays using HeLa or neuroblastoma cell lines. Development of the enteric nervous system was studied in Sufu(f/f), Gli3(Δ699), Wnt1-Cre, and Sox10(NGFP) mice using immunohistochemical and whole-mount staining procedures to quantify enteric neurons and glia and analyze axon fasciculation, respectively. NCC migration was studied using time-lapse imaging. RESULTS: We identified 3 mutations in GLI in 5 patients with Hirschsprung disease but no controls; all lead to increased transcription of SOX10 in cell lines. SUFU, GLI, and SOX10 form a regulatory loop that controls the neuronal vs glial lineages and migration of NCCs. Sufu mutants mice had high Gli activity, due to loss of Sufu, disrupting the regulatory loop and migration of enteric NCCs, leading to defective axonal fasciculation, delayed gut colonization, or intestinal hypoganglionosis. The ratio of enteric neurons to glia correlated inversely with Gli activity. CONCLUSIONS: We identified mutations that increase GLI activity in patients with Hirschsprung disease. Disruption of the SUFU-GLI-SOX10 regulatory loop disrupts migration of NCCs and development of the enteric nervous system in mice.