[Comparison of the efficiency of inhalation and injection anaesthesia for the castration of male suckling piglets in different organic farms]. / Effizienzvergleich von Inhalations- und Injektionsnarkose zur Kastration männlicher Saugferkel auf unterschiedlichen, ökologisch arbeitenden Praxisbetrieben.

OBJECTIVE: In Germany, injection and inhalation anesthesia with the addition of an analgesic drug are an interim solution to surgical castration under general anesthesia due to the ban on non-anesthetic castration of male suckling piglets under 8 days of age. However, the efficiency of both anesthetic procedures is submit to controversial discussion. Most of the studies addressing this question only examined one of the procedures in comparison to piglets castrated without anesthesia or uncastrated controls. Comparisons between the anesthesia methods, especially under conditions of organically working farms, are almost completely lacking. The aim of the present study was therefore to compare the efficacy of injection and inhalation anesthesia under practical conditions in 7 organic farms as well as to examine the effect of metamizole administered in addition to meloxicam. MATERIAL AND METHODS: For this purpose, 514 male suckling piglets were examined with regard to anesthesia efficiency (reflex test, defence behaviour), body temperature, post-operative bleeding and wound healing, post-operative behavior and pain behavior as well as the course of the recovery phase. RESULTS: The results show a basic superiority of inhalation anesthesia over injection anesthesia, especially in the areas of anesthetic efficacy, thermoregulation and duration of the recovery phase. In 7.7 to 15 % of piglets, the perianal and interclaw reflexes studied were still present at the time of castration. Following injection and inhalation anesthesia, in total 83.6 (25.2 %) of the piglets showed at least one of the following criteria: positive reflex response, clear defensive movements or vocalisations. Body temperature dropped by 0.41 °C under inhalation anesthesia and by 1.82 °C under injection anesthesia. Post-castration bleeding and wound healing were hardly influenced by the type of anesthesia. Almost all piglets showed signs of pain and pain-associated behavior for 5 and 72 hours after castration, regardless of the type of anesthesia. The post-castration recovery phases lasted significantly longer after injection anesthesia (107 minutes) than following inhalation anesthesia (33.3 minutes) until the piglets were returned to the sow. CONCLUSION: Neither injection nor inhalation anesthesia in spite of additional administration of meloxicam, nor the supplementary use of metamizole, fulfil the EU requirements for painless castration. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The necessary analgesia during and after castration of male suckling piglets is not achieved under either isoflurane or ketamine/azaperone anesthesia, despite the use of meloxicam and metamizole.

Effects of Housing and Management Factors on Selected Indicators of the Welfare Quality® Protocol in Loose-Housed Dairy Cows.

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of housing and management factors on animal welfare indicators in dairy cows using a benchmarking approach. In total, 63 conventional dairy cattle farms with zero-grazing in Northern Germany were assessed using selected animal welfare indicators (body condition score, integument alterations, lameness, milk somatic cell count, and social behaviour) of the Welfare Quality® protocol. Additionally, housing characteristics such as designs of barns, cubicles, and floors were documented during farm visits and farmers were interviewed concerning their common management routines. Farms were categorized into a high welfare or low welfare group by calculating upper and lower tertiles for each of the animal welfare indicators separately. Both groups were compared regarding housing conditions and management practices using univariable and multivariable logistic regressions. Several associations between housing and management factors and animal welfare indicators were demonstrated in univariable analysis (p < 0.20). Significant effects within multivariable logistic regression analysis were determined for lameness (routine use of foot-baths), milk somatic cell count (milking frequency) and social behaviour (cow-to-stall ratio) (p < 0.05). Comparing farms with higher and lower animal welfare status can provide useful information about effective options to improve animal welfare.

Effects of Different Housing Systems during Suckling and Rearing Period on Skin and Tail Lesions, Tail Losses and Performance of Growing and Finishing Pigs.

Feasible alternatives to stressful weaning and tail-docking are needed to inhibit tail biting. Therefore, we investigated the effects of housing systems for 1106 pigs that were weaned from: (1) conventional farrowing crates (FC), (2) free-farrowing pens (FF), or (3) group housing of lactating sows (GH) into (1) conventional rearing pens (Conv) or (2) piglets remained in their farrowing pens for rearing (Reaf). Tails were docked or left undocked batchwise. All pigs were regrouped for the fattening period. Pigs were scored for skin lesions, tail lesions and losses. After weaning, Conv-GH pigs had significantly less skin lesions than Conv-FC and Conv-FF pigs. After regrouping for fattening, Reaf-GH pigs had significantly less skin lesions than Conv pigs, Reaf-FC and Reaf-FF. The frequency of tail lesions of undocked Conv pigs peaked in week 4 (66.8%). Two weeks later, Reaf undocked pigs reached their maximum (36.2%). At the end of fattening, 99.3% of undocked Conv pigs and 43.1% of undocked Reaf pigs lost parts of their tail. In conclusion, the co-mingling of piglets during suckling reduced the incidence of skin lesions. Rearing in the farrowing pen significantly reduced the incidence of tail lesions and losses for undocked pigs. No housing system negatively affected the performance.

Effect of low and high concentrate supplementation on health and welfare indicators in different breeds in small-scale mountain dairy farms.

We investigated and compared the effects of low and high concentrate supplementation in terms of animal welfare, health and reproductive performance in two different dairy cow breeds on small-scale mountain farms. 64 South Tyrolean dairy farms were evaluated using an on-farm assessment for animal-based and resource-based welfare indicators, data from test day records, and a questionnaire for the farmer. Farms were divided into four groups: low input Tyrolean Grey (L-TG), low input Brown Swiss (L-BS), high input Tyrolean Grey (H-TG) and high input Brown Swiss (H-BS). Effects of intensity level, breed and their interaction were calculated and analyzed statistically. The predominant husbandry system across all groups was tie-stall. The average energy-corrected milk yield increased with increasing concentrate level, with L-TG showing the lowest and H-BS showing the highest milk yield. Age at first calving was lowest in H-BS when compared to all other systems, while numbers of lactations were higher in L-TG compared to H-BS. Feed efficiency (percentage of milk out of roughage) was significantly higher in L-TG and L-BS when compared to H-TG and H-BS. L-BS showed the poorest results for most of the welfare indicators such as lean cows, lesions and percentage of dirty animals. In conclusion, a higher concentrate level in diets does not lead automatically to lower animal welfare for dairy cows in alpine regions. Indeed, keeping high yielding breeds in extensive systems seems to be challenging. The dual-purpose breed TG showed some clear advantages in that calving interval was lower and the number of lactations greater.

Anthelmintic resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes in sheep raised under mountain farming conditions in Northern Italy.

Anthelmintic resistance (AR) in sheep raised under mountain farming conditions in South Tyrol (Northern Italy) was assessed on eight farms (n=99 animals). A faecal egg count reduction (FECR) test was done after routine anthelmintic treatments. Furthermore, on 27 farms (n=306 animals), a FECR test was conducted after oral formulations of a macrocyclic lactone (ML), benzimidazole (BZ) (partly in combination with salicylanilide (SA)) or a combination of imidazothiazole and SA were applied under controlled conditions on the same farm. Following routine treatments, three of five ML-treated flocks showed an adequate efficacy, while the other two reached a FECR of only around 75 per cent. A wide range of gastrointestinal nematode genera were identified in one flock following the treatment. From the three BZ-treated flocks, only one showed an adequate FECR, both other farms reached 68 per cent and 84 per cent, respectively. Under controlled conditions, FECR ranged between 77 per cent and 81 per cent indicating AR for all the applied anthelmintics. Trichostrongylus species, Teladorsagia species and Haemonchus species were identified after ML treatment, Teladorsagia species after BZ treatment and Trichostrongylus species and Haemonchus species after combined BZ and SA application. Taking into consideration that underdosing might have affected results of the routine treatments, a high prevalence of AR was found in sheep under mountain farming conditions.

Does feeding frequency during lactation affect sows' body condition, reproduction and production performance?

The present study investigated whether a three-times compared to two-times feeding frequency during lactation affects sows' body condition, reproductive performance as well as growth performance of the piglets . In a commercial farm, eight groups (8-10 animals) with a total number of 68 sows were included in the study. During lactation, four groups received feed two times (treatment 2DF) and four groups three times daily (treatment 3DF). Within treatments, sows were classified into young (<2 parities) and old (≥3 parities). Body condition score (BCS), shoulder lesions, return to estrus rate and piglet's growth performance were recorded. The 3DF sows had a higher (p < 0.05) feed intake and less shoulder lesions (p < 0.05) than 2DF animals. Return to estrus rate in the 3DF treatment was 0% for young and 29% for old sows. In the 2DF treatment return to estrus rate was 20% for young and 5% for old sows. In conclusion, three-times versus two-times daily feeding frequency during lactation increased feed intake and had a positive effect on sows' BCS and the frequency of shoulder lesions, while it also reduced incidents of return to estrus rate in young sows.

Relationship between herd size and measures of animal welfare on dairy cattle farms with freestall housing in Germany.

The objective of this study was to examine the association of herd size with animal welfare in dairy cattle herds. Therefore, 80 conventional dairy cattle farms were classified by the number of cows into 4 herd size classes, C1 (<100 cows), C2 (100-299 cows), C3 (300-499 cows), and C4 (≥500 cows), and assessed using multiple animal-based measures of the Welfare Quality Assessment protocol for dairy cattle. Data were recorded from April 2014 to September 2016 by an experienced single assessor in northern Germany. Each farm was visited 2 times at an interval of 6 mo (summer period and winter period) to avoid seasonal effects on the outcome. The average herd size was 383 ± 356 Holstein-Friesian cows (range 45 to 1,629). Only farms with freestall (cubicle) housing and a maximum of 6 h access to pasture per day were included in the study. Data were statistically analyzed using a generalized linear mixed model. None of the farms reached the highest overall rating of "excellent." The majority of the farms were classified as "enhanced" (30%) or "acceptable" (66%), and at 6 assessments the farms were rated as "not classified" (4%). Regarding single indicators, mean trough length per cow, percentage of cows with nasal discharge, and vulvar discharge increased with increasing herd size, whereas it was vice versa for displacements of cows. Percentage of lean cows, percentage of dirty lower legs, and duration of the process of lying down showed a curvilinear relationship with the number of cows per farm. Herd size was not associated with any other measures of the Welfare Quality protocol. In conclusion, herd size effects were small, and consequently herd size cannot be considered as a feasible indicator of the on-farm animal welfare level. Housing conditions and management practices seem to have a greater effect on animal welfare than the number of dairy cows per farm.

Does access to pasture affect claw condition and health in dairy cows?

The aim of this study was to examine effects of pasturing in dairy cows on claw condition (claw length, hardness) and on the prevalence of claw diseases. At claw trimming, a total of 240 Holstein-Friesian or Red-Holstein cows from 20 German farms were examined twice, at the end of the pasture and barn season. Each individual claw was trimmed at both assessments. Farms were classified based on animals' pasture access during pasture season into: group 1 (G1) >10 hours pasture access per day, group 2 (G2) 6-10 hours, group 3 (G3) <6 hours and group 4 (G4) without pasture access. Greater values for hardness were associated with lower scores (=prevalence×severity level) of sole ulcers, white line disease, sole haemorrhage, heel horn erosion and interdigital hyperplasia. In pasture groups, heel horn erosion showed lower frequencies in summer compared with winter, while it was vice versa in G4. In G1 and G3, lower frequencies of white line disease were found in summer compared with winter. Overall, pasture access had positive effects in particular for claw diseases that are related to moist environments. Nevertheless, appropriate free-stall design and claw trimming routine might have a greater influence.

Comparison of different measuring methods for body temperature in lactating cows under different climatic conditions.

The aim of the research described here was to compare different methods of body temperature (BT) measurements in dairy cows. It was hypothesised that reticular temperature (RET) values reflect the physiological status of the animals in an equivalent way to rectal (RT) and vaginal (VT) measurements. RT, VT and RET temperatures of twelve lactating Holstein-Friesian cows were measured over five consecutive days in June and October 2013. While RT and VT were manually measured three times a day, RET was automatically recorded at 10 min intervals using a bolus in the reticulum. For comparison with RT and VT, different RET values were used: single values at the respective recording times (RET-SIN), and mean (RET-MEAN) and median (RET-MED) values of 2 h prior to RT and VT measurements. Overall, body temperatures averaged 38·1 ± 0·6, 38·2 ± 0·4, 38·7 ± 0·9, 38·5 ± 0·7 and 38·7 ± 0·5 °C for RT, VT, RET-SIN, RET-MEAN and RET-MED, respectively. RT and VT were lower than all RET measurements, while RET-SIN and RET-MED were higher than RET-MEAN (P < 0·001). RET-MEAN and RET-MED values were higher in the morning, whereas RT and VT were greatest in the evening (P < 0·001). Overall, records of RT and VT were strongly correlated (r = 0·75; P < 0·001). In contrast to RET-SIN and RET-MEAN, RET-MED was higher correlated to RT and VT. In June, coefficients were higher between all methods than in October. Relation of barn T to RT and VT was stronger when compared to RET measurements. RET-SIN was higher correlated to barn T than RET-MEAN or RET-MED. Correlation between VT and barn T was strongest (r = 0·48; P < 0·001). In summary, RET-MED showed highest correlation with VT and RT. However, single RET measurements (influenced by water or feed intake) can lead to extreme variations and differences to single VT and RT values.

Effects of temperature and temperature-humidity index on the reproductive performance of sows during summer months under a temperate climate.

Heat stress is known to influence sow reproduction, but it is unknown to which extent under temperate climates. Therefore, the impact of temperature and temperature-humidity index (THI) on the reproductive performance of sows during summer months from 2009 to 2011 were studied. Reproductive parameters of 22 264 inseminations and 21 610 resulting farrowings of 22 German commercial farms were analyzed. Climatic records were available from the nearest weather station. Effects of temperature and THI at different periods of the reproductive cycle were estimated from May to September where temperatures were expected to influence climatic conditions indoors. High temperatures and THI values 5 days pre- and 14 days post-breeding reduced litter size by 0.01 to 0.03 piglets (P < 0.05). Prior to farrowing, the number of liveborn piglets was reduced (P < 0.05) and of stillborns increased with rising climatic variables (P < 0.001). On the day of farrowing, reduced numbers of weaned piglets were observed when temperature and THI values were elevated (P < 0.05), but pre-weaning mortality was not influenced (P > 0.05). In conclusion, even under temperate conditions adverse effects of climatic variables on the reproductive performance of sows are present. Thereby, the number of liveborn piglets can be considered as the most sensitive parameter to heat stress. Considering the impact of climate change and predicted heat waves, strategies to mitigate the impact of heat stress are necessary.

Grazing behaviour and dry matter intake of llamas (Lama glama) and German black- head mutton sheep (Ovis orientalis forma aries) under Central European conditions.

The aim of the present study was to assess the behaviour of llamas (Lama glama) and German blackhead mutton sheep (Ovis orientalis forma aries) when kept under Central European grazing conditions. In total, six adult female sheep and six adult female llamas were observed by direct observation during one week, in which each group was observed for a total time of 24 h. The animals were kept on the same pasture, but the species were raised in separate plots. Forage height before and after the experimental period were determined using a rising plate meter to calculate the average daily dry matter intake (DMI). Llamas had a daily DMI of 0.85%/BW and sheep of 1.04%/BW, respectively. The following behaviours were recorded by direct observation: grazing standing up, grazing lying down, ruminating standing up, ruminating lying down, lying down, lying down lateral and standing. Both species grazed for more than 50% of the time. Ruminating was predominantly performed while standing and lying by sheep (about 50% of the night and 12% of the day) and while lying by llamas (54% of the night and 10% of the day). In conclusion, sheep and llamas differed in grazing behaviour and daily biorhythm. These differences indicate that sheep and llamas may not synchronize their behaviour when co-grazed, though particularly in co-grazing studies the observation period should be extended.

Effects of sex and age on behavior and weight gain in beef calves after abrupt weaning.

The effects of weaning on beef calves of different ages were investigated. Forty male and 40 female calves were either weaned at 6 (W6, n = 40) or 8 (W8, n = 40) months of age. The vocalization activity and behaviors (feeding, lying and standing/walking) were observed during the first 3 days following weaning. Body weight was recorded at 6 and 8 months and 2 weeks following weaning. W6 animals vocalized more often than W8 calves and females more than males on day 1 (P < 0.05). The vocalization activity decreased at a higher rate in W8 than in W6 from days 1 to 3. On day 2, W6 calves spent less time lying and more standing/walking than W8 calves (P < 0.05). The behaviors did not differ between males and females. The average daily gain after weaning did not differ between weaning ages (P > 0.05), but W8 calves gained more from 6 to 8 months of age. In conclusion, weaning distress was more pronounced in W6 than in W8 calves. W8 calves also had a superior growth performance during 6 to 8 months of age. The effect of the calves' sex was less pronounced. Therefore, it is recommended to wean beef calves later than 6 months of age.

[Dry matter intake of South American camelids and its effects on the composition of feed rations]. / Trockensubstanzaufnahme von Neuwelt- kameliden und deren Bedeutung für die Rationsgestaltung.

The number of South American camelids (SAC) is increasing in Germany since decades. Due to a lack of scientifically based publications the knowledge about feeding SACs is still poor. Therefore, the aim of this study was to estimate the dry matter intake (DMI) of SACs as a basis for calculations of feed rations. Previous studies proposed a DMI of up to 3% of the body weight (BW) (Vaughan und Gauly, 2011). In the present study, eight llamas (Llama glama) were allocated to two groups of four animals each. The two groups were fed with hay of different qualities over a total period often weeks, which was divided into two runs of five weeks each. During the first run, group 1 was fed with hay 1 (15.1% crude protein; 8.5% crude ash; 3.1% crude fat; 52.6% NDF per kg DM) and group 2 with hay 2 (6.6% crude protein; 6.2% crude ash; 2.1% crude fat; 64.3% NDF per kg DM). After five weeks the groups were changed and group 1 received hay 2 and group 2 received hay 1. BW was measured at the start and end of each run (week zero, five and ten). The hay quality affected the DMI, but the animals did not compensate a lower feed quality with an increased DMI. The total DMI was 1.26% and 0.89% of the BW for hay 1 and hay 2, respectively, which was lower than expected in both groups. In conclusion, calculations of feed rations for SACs should be adjusted to the present findings of a lower DMI capability.

Evaluation of vaginal discharge with the Metricheck device and the relationship to reproductive performance in postpartum dairy cows.

Vaginal mucus during estrus was examined with the Metricheck device and the relationship to the reproduction of high-yielding dairy cows was studied. The study was conducted in 99 dairy herds located in Western Germany and 1348 Holstein-Friesian heifers and cows showing spontaneous estrus were examined. Independent of the Metricheck result, the animals were inspected by professional insemination technicians and those suitable for insemination (n = 989) were bred by artificial insemination (AI). Reproductive performance was characterized by non-return rate at 90 days (NRR90). The discharge of the animals predominantly had a clear appearance (70%) and a stringy consistency (80%). Animals with clear vaginal discharge had higher NRR90 (56%; n = 697) than animals with abnormal (turbid, mucopurulent, purulent, sanguineous) vaginal secretion (48%, n = 292; P < 0.05). NRR90 was lower in animals with short calving to AI interval (< 70 days; 39%) than with medium (70-130 days; 54%) or long (> 130 days; 62%) intervals (P < 0.05). NRR90 decreased by 12% from the lowest (< 15 kg) to the highest (> 45 kg) milk yield class. In conclusion, the use of the Metricheck device integrated into the insemination procedure is recommended to identify dairy cows suffering severely from uterine disease.

Immune Response of Bos indicus Cattle against the Anti-Tick Antigen Bm91 Derived from Local Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus Ticks and Its Effect on Tick Reproduction under Natural Infestation.

Antigens of anti-tick vaccines are more efficacious for homologous challenge with local tick strains. cDNA clones encoding for Bm91 from local Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus strains were developed to immunize Bos indicus cattle under field conditions. Three groups of six animals each were injected with the antigen Bm91, saline, and adjuvant, respectively. Animals were immunized three times at 3-week intervals and a fourth time after six months. The anti-Bm91 antibody level, measured by ELISA, was monitored for 7 months and the reproductive performance of naturally infested R. (B.) microplus was determined. Bm91-immunized animals developed a strong immune response expressed by high anti-Bm91 levels remaining on high levels until the end of the study. Western blot analysis confirmed that Bm91 is immunogenic. Compared to control animals, the reproductive efficiency index and the egg viability were 6% and 8%, respectively, lower in the Bm91 group (P < 0.05). In conclusion, it was demonstrated that Bm91 induced a long-lasting immune response. However, the effect on the tick reproduction was not sufficient for an efficient tick control. Further studies under field conditions are warranted to enhance the effect on the tick reproduction by optimizing the immunization regimen, alone or in combination with other vaccine candidate antigens.