Satellite-derived NDVI, LST, and climatic factors driving the distribution and abundance of Anopheles mosquitoes in a former malarious area in northwest Argentina.

Distribution and abundance of disease vectors are directly related to climatic conditions and environmental changes. Remote sensing data have been used for monitoring environmental conditions influencing spatial patterns of vector-borne diseases. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Land Surface Temperature (LST) obtained from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), and climatic factors (temperature, humidity, wind velocity, and accumulated rainfall) on the distribution and abundance of Anopheles species in northwestern Argentina using Poisson regression analyses. Samples were collected from December, 2001 to December, 2005 at three localities, Aguas Blancas, El Oculto and San Ramón de la Nueva Orán. We collected 11,206 adult Anopheles species, with the major abundance observed at El Oculto (59.11%), followed by Aguas Blancas (22.10%) and San Ramón de la Nueva Orán (18.79%). Anopheles pseudopunctipennis was the most abundant species at El Oculto, Anopheles argyritarsis predominated in Aguas Blancas, and Anopheles strodei in San Ramón de la Nueva Orán. Samples were collected throughout the sampling period, with the highest peaks during the spring seasons. LST and mean temperature appear to be the most important variables determining the distribution patterns and major abundance of An. pseudopunctipennis and An. argyritarsis within malarious areas.

Mapping environmental susceptibility to Saint Louis encephalitis virus, based on a decision tree model of remotely-sensed data.

In response to the first human outbreak (January May 2005) of Saint Louis encephalitis (SLE) virus in Córdoba province, Argentina, we developed an environmental SLE virus risk map for the capital, i.e. Córdoba city. The aim was to provide a map capable of detecting macro-environmental factors associated with the spatial distribution of SLE cases, based on remotely sensed data and a geographical information system. Vegetation, soil brightness, humidity status, distances to water-bodies and areas covered by vegetation were assessed based on pre-outbreak images provided by the Landsat 5TM satellite. A strong inverse relationship between the number of humans infected by SLEV and distance to high-vigor vegetation was noted. A statistical non-hierarchic decision tree model was constructed, based on environmental variables representing the areas surrounding patient residences. From this point of view, 18% of the city could be classified as being at high risk for SLEV infection, while 34% carried a low risk, or none at all. Taking the whole 2005 epidemic into account, 80% of the cases came from areas classified by the model as medium-high or high risk. Almost 46% of the cases were registered in high-risk areas, while there were no cases (0%) in areas affirmed as risk free.

Models for predicting Aedes aegypti larval indices based on satellite images and climatic variables.

Forecasting models were developed for predicting Aedes aegypti larval indices in an endemic area for dengue (cities of Tartagal and Orán, northwestern Argentina), based on the Breteau and House indices and environmental variables considered with and without time lags. Descriptive models were first developed for each city and each index by multiple linear regressions, followed by a regional model including both cities together. Finally, two forecasting regional models (FRM) were developed and evaluated. FRM2 for the Breteau index and House index fit the data significantly better than FRMI. An evaluation of these models showed a higher correlation FRM1 than for FRM2 for the Breteau index (r = 0.83 and 0.62 for 3 months; r = 0.86 and 0.67 for 45 days) and the House index (r = 0.85 and 0.79 for 3 months; r = 0.79 and 0.74 for 45 days). Early warning based on these forecasting models can assist health authorities to improve vector control.

Space-time analysis of the dengue spreading dynamics in the 2004 Tartagal outbreak, Northern Argentina.

The spreading dynamic of the 2004 dengue fever outbreak that occurred in Tartagal, Northwestern Argentina, was investigated. A total of 487 suspected dengue cases were recorded and geo-referenced. Maps of daily cases were generated for the 109 days of the outbreak. The epidemic affected the majority of the city within 11 days. The age-distribution of the cases was different from the population age-distribution. The spatio-temporal clustering of the cases was analyzed using Knox test concept. Results of the space and time geo-referencing of the cases showed outbreak spotlights and spreading patterns that could be related to entomologic and epidemiologic factors. An environmental risk prediction model was developed based on a synthetic multi-band image created from LandSat 5 TM satellite image. The potential and limitations of remote sensing data and spatial statistics as landscape epidemiology tools for a dengue surveillance strategy and prevention are discussed.

Spatial pattern of reinfestation by Triatoma infestans in Chancanif, Argentina.

We examined the environmental correlates and the spatial pattern of infestation by Triatoma infestans, a vector of Chagas disease, in a rural area of Argentina five years following an insecticidal campaign. Patterns of infestation were identified in an entomological survey, as mapped with high-resolution satellite imagery and analyzed in a geographic information system. Logistic regression was used to relate infestation to observed household characteristics as well as the location and density of households. Location was the most significant predictor of infestation for domiciles. For peridomestic structures surrounding the domiciles, the combination of location and the presence/absence of goat pens was most significant. In considering any infestation, whether domiciliary or peridomestic, the combination of location, presence/absence of animal pens, and the type of household construction were found to be most significant. Using these statistical relationships to back-classify the field data resulted in accuracies between 85% and 87%. A map of infestation probability for the town of Chancaní was developed from the logistic regression.

[Transmission of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina]. / Transmisión de la leishmaniasis tegumentaria en la Argentina.

The total cases of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina increased since 1985, as the frequency, intensity and geographic distribution of the epidemic outbreaks, and the relative incidence in women and children. The characterization of the new scenarios of transmission generated in the last decades is needed for the design of appropriate control measures. With this aim, four outbreaks were described as case studies, based on epidemiological and entomological data together with the qualitative analysis of satellite imaginery: Urugua-i (2004), Esperanza (1998), Alberdi (2003) and Monteros-Simoca (2004). These descriptions allowed to define four scenarios of transmission according to a cycle: a) sylvatic with transmission in primary or residual vegetation; b) sylvatic with eventual peridomestic transmission due to changes within patches of residual vegetation; c) sylvatic with peridomestic transmission in domiciles contiguous with the residual vegetation; and d) peridomestic in rural, ruralized periurban or urban-rural interfase environment. All the epidemic outbreaks since 1985 were consistent with the scenarios characterized here, indicating that the tipification is comprehensive of the transmission of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina up to now. In conclusion, four scenarios of epidemic outbreaks were defined for Argentina, while it is highlighted the qualitative analysis of field and remote sensing data as a tool to understand the epidemiology of the disease, and so to develop adequate measures for prevention and control.

Phlebotominae spatial distribution asssociated with a focus of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Las Lomitas, Formosa, Argentina, 2002.

Las Lomitas, Formosa, Argentina, reported 96 cases of tegumentary leishmaniasis during 2002. The urban transmission was suggested although previous outbreaks were related with floods of the Bermejo river (BR) 50 km from the village. Phlebotomine collections were performed during March 2002 to define the spatial distribution of risk, together with satellite imaginery. The phlebotomine/trap obtained was 1679.5 in the southern BR shore, 1.1 in the periruban-rural environment and 2.3 in the northern Pilcomayo river marshes. Lutzomyia neivai was the prevalent species (91.1%) among the 2393 phlebotomine captured, and it was only found in the BR traps. The other species were L. migonei (7.9%), L. cortelezzii (0.9%), and Brumptomyia guimaraesi (0.1%). The satellite images analysis indicates that the fishing spots at the BR were significantly overflowed during the transmission peak, consistent with fishermen recollections. This spatial restricted flood might concentrate vectors, reservoirs, and humans in high places. Therefore, both the spatial distribution of vectors and the sensor remoting data suggests that in Las Lomitas area the higher transmission risk it is still related with the gallery forest of the BR, despite of the urban residence of the cases. The surveillance and control implications of these results are discussed.

Phlebotominae spatial distribution asssociated with a focus of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Las Lomitas, Formosa, Argentina, 2002

Las Lomitas, Formosa, Argentina, reported 96 cases of tegumentary leishmaniasis during 2002. The urban transmission was suggested although previous outbreaks were related with floods of the Bermejo river (BR) 50 km from the village. Phlebotomine collections were performed during March 2002 to define the spatial distribution of risk, together with satellite imaginery. The phlebotomine/trap obtained was 1679.5 in the southern BR shore, 1.1 in the periruban-rural environment and 2.3 in the northern Pilcomayo river marshes. Lutzomyia neivai was the prevalent species (91.1 percent) among the 2393 phlebotomine captured, and it was only found in the BR traps. The other species were L. migonei (7.9 percent), L. cortelezzii (0.9 percent), and Brumptomyia guimaraesi (0.1 percent). The satellite images analysis indicates that the fishing spots at the BR were significantlyoverflowed during the transmission peak, consistent with fishermen recollections. This spatial restricted flood might concentrate vectors, reservoirs, and humans in high places. Therefore, both the spatial distribution of vectors and the sensor remoting data suggests that in Las Lomitas area the higher transmission risk it is still related with the gallery forest of the BR, despite of the urban residence of the cases. The surveillance and control implications of these results are discussed.

Transmision de la leishmaniasis tegumentaria en la Argentina / Transmission of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina

La leishmaniasis tegumentaria ha experimentado en Argentina, desde 1985, un incremento de casos totales, de la frecuencia, intensidad y distribución de brotes epidémicos, y de la incidencia relativa en mujeres y en niños. Es necesario caracterizar los nuevas circunstancias de transmisión generadas en las últimas décadas para el diseño de estrategias apropiadas de control. Con dicho objeto, basados en indicadores epidemiológicos, entomológicos y en el análisis cualitativo de imágenes satelitales, se describen cuatro brotes epidémicos tomados como casos de estudio: Urugua-í (2004), Esperanza (1998), Alberdi (2003) y Monteros-Simoca (2004). A partir de dichas descripciones se caracterizaron cuatro ciclos: a) silvestre con transmisión en vegetación primaria o residual; b) silvestre con transmisión eventual peridoméstica por alteración deparches de vegetación residual; c) silvestre con transmisión peridoméstica por contigüidad con vegetación residual; d) peridoméstico en ambientes rurales, periurbano ruralizado o interfase urbano-rural. Todos los brotes epidémicos ocurridos desde 1985 se correspondieron con uno de estos ciclos, demostrando ser hasta el momento una tipificación abarcativa de la transmisión de leishmaniasis tegumentaria en la Argentina. De esta manera se categorizaron cuatro patrones epidémicos en el país, destacando a su vez la utilidad del análisis cualitativo, de datos de terreno e imágenes satelitales, como herramientas para comprender la epidemiología de la enfermedad y poder desarrollar medidas adecuadas de prevención y control.

The total cases of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina increased since 1985, as the frequency, intensity and geographic distribution of the epidemic outbreaks, and the relative incidence in women and children. The characterization of the new scenarios of transmission generated in the last decades is needed for the design of appropriate control measures. With this aim, four outbreaks were described as case studies, based on epidemiological and entomological data together with the qualitative analysis of satellite imaginery: Urugua-í (2004), Esperanza (1998), Alberdi (2003) and Monteros-Simoca (2004). These descriptions allowed to define four scenarios of transmission according to a cycle: a) sylvatic with transmission in primary or residual vegetation; b) sylvatic with eventual peridomestic transmission due to changes within patches of residual vegetation; c) sylvatic with peridomestic transmission in domiciles contiguous with the residual vegetation; and d) peridomestic in rural, ruralized periurban or urban-rural interfase environment. All the epidemic outbreaks since 1985 were consistent with the scenarios characterized here, indicating that the tipification is comprehensive of the transmission of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina up to now. In conclusion, four scenarios of epidemic outbreaks were defined for Argentina, while it is highlighted the qualitative analysis of field and remote sensing data as a tool to understand the epidemiology of the disease, and so to develop adequate measures for prevention and control.

Transmision de la leishmaniasis tegumentaria en la Argentina / Transmission of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina

La leishmaniasis tegumentaria ha experimentado en Argentina, desde 1985, un incremento de casos totales, de la frecuencia, intensidad y distribución de brotes epidémicos, y de la incidencia relativa en mujeres y en niños. Es necesario caracterizar los nuevas circunstancias de transmisión generadas en las últimas décadas para el diseño de estrategias apropiadas de control. Con dicho objeto, basados en indicadores epidemiológicos, entomológicos y en el análisis cualitativo de imágenes satelitales, se describen cuatro brotes epidémicos tomados como casos de estudio: Urugua-í (2004), Esperanza (1998), Alberdi (2003) y Monteros-Simoca (2004). A partir de dichas descripciones se caracterizaron cuatro ciclos: a) silvestre con transmisión en vegetación primaria o residual; b) silvestre con transmisión eventual peridoméstica por alteración deparches de vegetación residual; c) silvestre con transmisión peridoméstica por contig³idad con vegetación residual; d) peridoméstico en ambientes rurales, periurbano ruralizado o interfase urbano-rural. Todos los brotes epidémicos ocurridos desde 1985 se correspondieron con uno de estos ciclos, demostrando ser hasta el momento una tipificación abarcativa de la transmisión de leishmaniasis tegumentaria en la Argentina. De esta manera se categorizaron cuatro patrones epidémicos en el país, destacando a su vez la utilidad del análisis cualitativo, de datos de terreno e imágenes satelitales, como herramientas para comprender la epidemiología de la enfermedad y poder desarrollar medidas adecuadas de prevención y control.(AU)

The total cases of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina increased since 1985, as the frequency, intensity and geographic distribution of the epidemic outbreaks, and the relative incidence in women and children. The characterization of the new scenarios of transmission generated in the last decades is needed for the design of appropriate control measures. With this aim, four outbreaks were described as case studies, based on epidemiological and entomological data together with the qualitative analysis of satellite imaginery: Urugua-í (2004), Esperanza (1998), Alberdi (2003) and Monteros-Simoca (2004). These descriptions allowed to define four scenarios of transmission according to a cycle: a) sylvatic with transmission in primary or residual vegetation; b) sylvatic with eventual peridomestic transmission due to changes within patches of residual vegetation; c) sylvatic with peridomestic transmission in domiciles contiguous with the residual vegetation; and d) peridomestic in rural, ruralized periurban or urban-rural interfase environment. All the epidemic outbreaks since 1985 were consistent with the scenarios characterized here, indicating that the tipification is comprehensive of the transmission of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina up to now. In conclusion, four scenarios of epidemic outbreaks were defined for Argentina, while it is highlighted the qualitative analysis of field and remote sensing data as a tool to understand the epidemiology of the disease, and so to develop adequate measures for prevention and control.(AU)

Transmision de la leishmaniasis tegumentaria en la Argentina / Transmission of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina

La leishmaniasis tegumentaria ha experimentado en Argentina, desde 1985, un incremento de casos totales, de la frecuencia, intensidad y distribución de brotes epidémicos, y de la incidencia relativa en mujeres y en niños. Es necesario caracterizar los nuevas circunstancias de transmisión generadas en las últimas décadas para el diseño de estrategias apropiadas de control. Con dicho objeto, basados en indicadores epidemiológicos, entomológicos y en el análisis cualitativo de imágenes satelitales, se describen cuatro brotes epidémicos tomados como casos de estudio: Urugua-í (2004), Esperanza (1998), Alberdi (2003) y Monteros-Simoca (2004). A partir de dichas descripciones se caracterizaron cuatro ciclos: a) silvestre con transmisión en vegetación primaria o residual; b) silvestre con transmisión eventual peridoméstica por alteración deparches de vegetación residual; c) silvestre con transmisión peridoméstica por contig³idad con vegetación residual; d) peridoméstico en ambientes rurales, periurbano ruralizado o interfase urbano-rural. Todos los brotes epidémicos ocurridos desde 1985 se correspondieron con uno de estos ciclos, demostrando ser hasta el momento una tipificación abarcativa de la transmisión de leishmaniasis tegumentaria en la Argentina. De esta manera se categorizaron cuatro patrones epidémicos en el país, destacando a su vez la utilidad del análisis cualitativo, de datos de terreno e imágenes satelitales, como herramientas para comprender la epidemiología de la enfermedad y poder desarrollar medidas adecuadas de prevención y control.(AU)

The total cases of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina increased since 1985, as the frequency, intensity and geographic distribution of the epidemic outbreaks, and the relative incidence in women and children. The characterization of the new scenarios of transmission generated in the last decades is needed for the design of appropriate control measures. With this aim, four outbreaks were described as case studies, based on epidemiological and entomological data together with the qualitative analysis of satellite imaginery: Urugua-í (2004), Esperanza (1998), Alberdi (2003) and Monteros-Simoca (2004). These descriptions allowed to define four scenarios of transmission according to a cycle: a) sylvatic with transmission in primary or residual vegetation; b) sylvatic with eventual peridomestic transmission due to changes within patches of residual vegetation; c) sylvatic with peridomestic transmission in domiciles contiguous with the residual vegetation; and d) peridomestic in rural, ruralized periurban or urban-rural interfase environment. All the epidemic outbreaks since 1985 were consistent with the scenarios characterized here, indicating that the tipification is comprehensive of the transmission of tegumentary leishmaniasis in Argentina up to now. In conclusion, four scenarios of epidemic outbreaks were defined for Argentina, while it is highlighted the qualitative analysis of field and remote sensing data as a tool to understand the epidemiology of the disease, and so to develop adequate measures for prevention and control.(AU)