The Association between Food Security Status and Psychological Distress and Loneliness among Full-Time Undergraduate Students at a Minority-Serving Institution.

Little is known about the relationship of food security (FS) status with mental health among students at minority-serving institutions. We aimed to elucidate the association of FS status with psychological distress and loneliness among full-time undergraduate students at a minority-serving institution. We used data from the National Collegiate Health Assessment III (n = 441). To assess FS, students responded to the USDA 6-item short form (range: 0-6) and responses were categorized as high (0), marginal (1) or low/very low (2-6) FS. The Kessler 6 scale assessed psychological distress (range: 0-24). The UCLA loneliness scale assessed loneliness (range: 3-9). Higher scores indicated higher psychological distress and loneliness. Using adjusted linear regression models, we examined the association of FS with psychological distress and loneliness. Compared to students with high FS (mean (SD): 9.4 (0.8)), students with marginal (11.4 (1.0); p < 0.05) or low/very low (11.8 (0.8); p < 0.01) FS had higher psychological distress scores. Compared to students with high FS (5.5 (0.3)), students with low/very low FS (6.0 (0.3); p < 0.05) had higher loneliness scores. Future studies should further explore these relationships using mixed methods, to provide complementary quantitative findings with the emic perspective of students and their experiences, which can inform programming to prevent and reduce food insecurity.

Efficacy and cost-effectiveness of subsidized ridesharing as a drunk driving intervention in Columbus, OH.

BACKGROUND: No economic evaluations exist of free or subsidized ridesharing services designed to reduce impaired driving. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the effects and economics of a 17-weekend program that provided rideshare coupons good for free one-way or round trips to/from the hospitality zones in Columbus, Ohio, coupled with a modest increase in enforcement and a media campaign that used messaging about enforcement to promote usage. METHODS: Web surveys of riders and intercept surveys of foot traffic in the hospitality zones yielded data on the reduction in driving after drinking and the change in alcohol consumption associated with coupon use. We estimated crash changes from trip data using national studies, then confirmed with an ARIMA analysis of monthly police crash reports. Costs and output data came from program and rideshare company records. RESULTS: 70.8% of 19,649 responding coupon redeemers said coupon use reduced the chance they would drive after drinking. An estimated 1 in 4,310 drink-driving trips results in an alcohol-attributable crash, so the coupons prevented an estimated 3.2 crashes. Consistent with that minimal change, the ARIMA analysis did not detect a drunk-driving crash reduction. Self-reports indicated alcohol consumption rose by an average of 0.4 drinks per coupon redeemer, possibly with an equal rise among people who rode with the redeemer. The program cost almost $650,000 and saved an estimated 1.8 years of healthy life. Across a range of discount rates and values for a year of healthy life, it cost $366,000 to $791,000 per year of healthy life saved. Its estimated benefit-cost ratio was between 0.31 and 0.59, meaning it cost far more than it saved. CONCLUSIONS: Ridesharing, coupled with a media campaign and increased enforcement, was not a cost-effective drunk-driving intervention. Although it reduced drink-driving crashes and saved years of healthy life, those savings were modest and expensive. Moreover, the self-reported increase in participant drinking imposed countervailing risks. Even sensitivity analyses that potentially overestimate the benefits and underestimate the costs indicate a significant imbalance between program costs and savings. Any funding devoted to ridesharing would divert scarce resources from interventions with benefit-cost ratios above 1. Thus, our evaluation suggests that governments should not devote energy or resources to ridesharing programs if their primary objective is to reduce drink-driving or harmful alcohol use.

The influence of status on group drinking by young adults: a survey of natural drinking groups on their way to and from bars.

BACKGROUND: Young people's social standing among friends and peers has been linked to general levels of drinking and has been shown to influence others' drinking. We extend previous research by examining young adults' status within their natural-occurring drinking groups as a predictor of their subsequent alcohol consumption and encouragement of group members' alcohol consumption during a night out at licensed drinking establishments, a salient context for heavy drinking and alcohol-related risk among young adults. METHODS: We recruited same-sex young adult drinking groups (n = 104 groups; 63 all-male; average group size = 3.4 members; Mage = 21.86) on their way to drinking establishments to complete a survey-containing measures of member-nominated within-group status, likeability, and self-reported alcohol consumption-and a breathalyzer test. At the end of the evening, participants completed the same alcohol consumption measures and were asked to nominate group members who encouraged other members to drink that night. RESULTS: Multilevel analysis revealed that higher-status members engaged in the most alcohol consumption (via both self-report and breathalyzer) but in heavier drinking groups only. Higher-status members also encouraged the most alcohol consumed by others, regardless of levels of group drinking. Further, even though being liked by one's peers was positively related to intoxication that night, it did not account for the significant relationship between within-group status and drinking. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that peer-related prevention programs for young adults' problem drinking may benefit from focusing on the structure and dynamic of young people's drinking groups. Also, programs targeting peer norms may be more successful if they incorporate status-related issues.

Alcohol Consumption, Dating Relationships, and Preliminary Sexual Outcomes in Collegiate Natural Drinking Groups.

This study tested the effects of committed relationships and presence of dates on alcohol consumption and preliminary sexual outcomes in natural drinking groups (NDGs). Undergraduate drinkers (N = 302) answered an online questionnaire on their most recent participation in a NDG. The interaction between relationship commitment and presence of a date on alcohol consumption was significant. Among students not in committed relationships, those dating within their NDG reported heavier drinking than those not dating. Students in committed relationships drank less than those who were not committed only when their partners were present. The positive correlation between drinking and sexual contact was significant only for those who were not in committed relationships. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed.

Alcohol intoxication and occasional smoking: a field investigation.

OBJECTIVES: To test the relationship between alcohol intoxication and smoking behaviors in a field sample of 1139 young adults. METHODS: A self-administered survey and an objective measure of intoxication were used for data collection. We tested the relationship between smoking status and alcohol intoxication as well as the relationship between alcohol intoxication and smoking behaviors/intentions among occasional smokers. RESULTS: Occasional smokers were significantly more intoxicated than never smokers. Among occasional smokers, higher levels of intoxication were significantly associated with smoking behavior. CONCLUSIONS: The importance of using field studies to investigate the co-occurring use of alcohol and cigarettes is discussed.

The relationship between alcohol consumption and past-year smoking initiation in a sample of undergraduates.

BACKGROUND: Although most young people begin smoking before the age of 18, the results of a growing number of recent studies have shown a sizable minority of college students initiate smoking while in college. Moreover, the use of alcohol by college students has been linked to smoking initiation in some studies in the literature. OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to examine the association between past-year drinking frequency and past-year smoking initiation among a sample of college students. METHODS: A total of 1,523 undergraduate students attending a large urban university in the southwestern United States were invited to participate in an Internet study examining college student lifestyles and behaviors. RESULTS: The results of a logistic regression analysis indicated a significant association between past-year alcohol consumption and the likelihood of past-year smoking initiation after controlling for respondent race, the past-year use of marijuana, illicit drug use, and prescription drug use. CONCLUSIONS AND SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: These results suggest alcohol consumption may serve as an influence on smoking initiation among some college students. These results provide additional support to a growing literature linking alcohol use to smoking initiation in college student populations. Additional research is needed to determine the mechanisms that explain this relationship.

Salvia divinorum: effects and use among YouTube users.

Salvia divinorum (salvia) is an intense, short-acting hallucinogenic plant gaining popularity among adolescents in the United States. There has been little scientific documentation of salvia's effects. The popular video-sharing website YouTube has received literally thousands of video-posts of people using salvia. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of salvia use through systematic observations of YouTube videos. A sample of salvia videos was obtained using the search term "salvia." The videos were further screened and only videos that captured the entire drug "trip" without video edits were included in the analyses described here (n=34). Three trained research assistants independently watched the videos and rated their observations on 42 effects in 30-s intervals. Onset of symptoms was quick (often less than 30s) and tended to dissipate within 8min. Further, there was a relationship between salvia dose and effect duration. Since salvia's effects on humans are largely undocumented, this study provides the look at users in a non-laboratory environment (e.g. self-taped videos) exhibiting impairments and behaviors consistent with this powerful hallucinogen. Also, this study demonstrates the feasibility and shortcomings of using YouTube videos to assess emerging drugs and drug effects.

Predictors of error in estimates of blood alcohol concentration: a replication.

OBJECTIVE: To identify predictors of error in estimated blood alcohol concentration (eBAC) in a sample of bar patrons. METHOD: Six hundred sixty-six patrons (43.6% female) were randomly sampled from 32 bars. Patrons were asked to provide a breath sample into a handheld breath alcohol concentration test unit upon entrance and exit from the bar. Patrons also completed a brief survey at entrance and exit. For analyses, this sample was stratified by whether patrons consumed alcohol before attending the bar. Estimates of BAC were calculated using Matthews and Miller's formula (1979). A three-category dependent variable was created based on the estimation accuracy of eBAC relative to breath alcohol concentration: accurate (within .02), underestimate of BAC, and overestimate of BAC. RESULTS: Of those that drank before arriving at the bar, 29% of eBACs were accurate, 32.3% were underestimates, and 38.8% were overestimates. For those who drank only at the bar, 42.0% were accurate, 20.8% were underestimates, and 37.7% were overestimates. Among those who drank before attending the bar, the number of drinks consumed before attending the bar was significantly related to eBAC underestimate. Among those who drank only at the bar, predictors of overestimate included being female, drinking more, and drinking longer. CONCLUSIONS: The accuracy of eBAC is poor at best. In an earlier study of parties, eBACs were often underestimated; in the bar setting, eBACs were often overestimated. More research is needed to understand the role of setting on eBAC calculations.

Effects of residential learning communities on drinking trajectories during the first two years of college.

OBJECTIVE: Participation in residential learning communities (RLCs) is associated with lower rates of alcohol consumption among college students. This study used variable- and pattern-centered analytic approaches to examine the influence of RLCs on the drinking behavior of students during their first 2 years in college. METHOD: A Web-based survey was administered to a stratified random sample of 1,196 first-year students (51.8% women) attending a large university. The sample included 456 students (38.1%) who lived in and participated in RLCs and 740 students (61.9%) who did not participate in RLCs (non-RLCs). During their first semester, students reported on their precollege and current drinking. Students also completed measures of alcohol involvement 6 months later during their second semester and 18 months later during their fourth semester. RESULTS: Mixed factorial analyses of variance showed that RLC students reported fewer drinks per occasion than non-RLC students before college. RLC and non-RLC students showed increases in maximum drinks per occasion from precollege to first and second semesters, but only non-RLC students continued to increase their drinking from second to fourth semester. Latent class growth analyses indicated four trajectory classes: (1) low stable (25.1%), (2) light increasing (19.2%), (3) moderate increasing (36.8%), and (4) heavy increasing (18.9%). Non-RLC students had higher odds of being in the heavy-increasing drinking trajectory class. CONCLUSIONS: Compared with their non-RLC peers, RLC students not only drink less before college and show smaller increases in drinking over time but also are less likely to be in a high-risk drinking trajectory group. Identification of selection, socialization, and reciprocal influence processes that underlie RLC effects can better inform prevention efforts for sustained lower risk drinking among college students.

Standardized measures of alcohol-related problems: a review of their use among college students.

College students' alcohol consumption has received considerable attention in the scientific literature and the media for its impact on students and the college community. Misuse of alcohol can lead to a wide range of consequences, the most severe being alcohol abuse, dependence, and death. Researchers have struggled to develop effective methods to assess problems related to alcohol, and the literature on college drinking lacks a strong theoretical framework for such assessment. The authors contend that measures of alcohol-related problems for college students should assess specific dimensions pertaining to 3 main domains: alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, and what the authors define as risky drinking. The authors examined how existing measures fit into this model. In a comprehensive review of the college literature, the authors identified 9 measures (and their revised versions) assessing alcohol-related problems. Their analysis revealed that most measures do not assess comprehensively the domains outlined, and instead provide only partial assessments of the potential consequences of drinking for college students. The authors include directions for future research so that measurement of drinking consequences for college students can be refined.

Three exploratory studies of college theme parties.

INTRODUCTION AND AIMS: The objectives of this exploratory research were to (1) explore the characteristics and risks associated with college theme parties, (2) assess differences in risk associated with college theme parties compared to non-theme parties and (3) to assess differences in risk associated with risqué theme parties as compared to non-risqué theme parties. DESIGN AND METHODS: We used a mixed methods design. Results are presented from three exploratory studies of alcohol consumption in college theme parties: (1) four qualitative focus groups of students who have attended such events, (2) a web-based survey and (3) a multi-level (observational, survey, breath blood alcohol samples) study of 226 college parties, 29 of which were themed events. Focus group participants included a convenience sample of 17 college students aged 18-24 years; participants for the web survey included a convenience sample of 407 college students; participants for the multi-level study of college parties included 1725 randomly selected individuals at college parties. RESULTS: Themes tended to be highly sexualized. Compared to non-themed parties, theme parties have been observed to be more rowdy, louder, involve drinking games, feature kegs and feature hard liquor. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Themed parties are associated with heavy drinking and are consistent with environments sought by heavy drinkers. As a result, themed parties are marked by a greater number of alcohol-related problems. Further research is needed to understand more clearly the risks involved in themed and risqué themed events.

Heavy episodic drinking and its consequences: the protective effects of same-sex, residential living-learning communities for undergraduate women.

Gender and living environment are two of the most consistent factors associated with heavy episodic drinking on college campuses. This study aimed to determine group differences in alcohol misuse and its attendant consequences between undergraduate women living in four distinct on-campus residential environments. A Web-based survey was self-administered to a stratified random sample of full-time students attending a large Midwestern University, and living in four distinct on-campus residential environments: 1) single-sex (all female) residential learning communities (RLCs), 2) mixed-sex (male and female) RLCs, 3) single-sex (all female) non-RLCs and 4) mixed-sex (male and female) non-RLCs. Respondents living in single-sex and mixed-sex RLCs had significantly lower rates of alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking and related primary alcohol-related consequences when compared to respondents living in non-RLCs; however, women in single-sex RLCs had the lowest rates. RLCs - particularly single-sex learning communities - appear to provide undergraduate women with an environment that supports lower rates of alcohol use and abuse.

Breath alcohol concentrations of college students in field settings: seasonal, temporal, and contextual patterns.

OBJECTIVE: Seasonality in alcohol consumption has implications for epidemiology and prevention. In this research we examined seasonal, temporal, and contextual variation in drinking among college students at a large West Coast university. METHOD: We used a field survey (across a 3-year period) to collect anonymous breath alcohol concentrations from students sampled randomly as they walked on and near the campus on weekend nights. RESULTS: After controlling for student demographics, we found that the breath alcohol concentration samples we collected during the spring and winter were significantly higher than those collected during the fall. Subsequent analyses indicated that this difference could be attributed to fewer students drinking in the fall rather than to students consuming smaller quantities of alcohol. CONCLUSIONS: Seasonal trends in college student drinking mirror seasonal trends demonstrated in the general population. This research may help guide future intervention or prevention efforts.

College student use of Salvia divinorum.

OBJECTIVE: Salvia divinorum (salvia) is a plant that appears to be enjoying increased popularity as a legal hallucinogen in many U.S. jurisdictions. While the popular press has claimed that its use has become widespread, there have been no epidemiological studies published documenting this within the U.S. METHOD: A sample of college students was randomly drawn from a large public university in the southwestern U.S. and invited to participate in an online survey that included salvia use among a set of other drug use items. RESULTS: From the sample of 1516 college student respondents, a pattern of use emerged that indicates that salvia is indeed becoming a significant member of the list of drugs used, with 4.4% of students reporting using salvia at least once within the past 12 months. Subpopulations that are typically most at risk for drug use within college students (Whites, males, fraternity members, heavy episodic drinkers) also were most likely to use salvia. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that more research is needed to determine the generalizability of these findings, and identify whether there are any negative consequences experienced either by the user or the community associated with this drug.

"My drink is larger than yours"? A literature review of self-defined drink sizes and standard drinks.

National health offices define drink sizes to establish guidelines for alcohol use. International variations exist in the limits and drink sizes recommended. Surveys assessing drinking levels rely on the notion of standard drink when enquiring about participants' alcohol consumption and international comparisons are difficult because of the various definitions of one standard drink. Surveys are based on the assumption that respondents know and understand the concept of standard drink and are able to use it. We reviewed studies examining participants' knowledge and understanding of the notion of standard drinks as well as their ability to pour standard drinks. Across studies, participants' drink sizes typically contained greater volumes of alcohol than one standard drink. This suggests that levels of alcohol consumption have been underestimated in previous research. The magnitude of this over-sizing effect varied based on types of drinks, vessel sizes, drinking habits, and research methods. Indeed, the effect was the greatest for mixed drinks and spirits, followed by wine and beer. It also increased with vessel size and was affected by respondents' drinking experience. Using photographs of vessels as representations of usual drinks exhibited the strongest discrepancy compared to tasks using actual vessels; and paradigms involving pouring real alcohol seemed to lead to greater effects than those using water or colored water. Lastly, evidence suggests that these misperceptions could be corrected and that such correction may reduce drink sizes. Implications of these findings are discussed and recommendations for researchers, health promotion campaigns and policy makers are made.

Reasons for nonresponse in a web-based survey of alcohol involvement among first-year college students.

This study conducted a follow-up telephone survey of a probability sample of college students who did not respond to a Web survey to determine correlates of and reasons for nonresponse. A stratified random sample of 2502 full-time first-year undergraduate students was invited to participate in a Web-based survey. A random sample of 221 students who did not respond to the original Web survey completed an abbreviated version of the original survey by telephone. Nonresponse did not vary by gender, but nonresponse was higher among Blacks and Hispanics compared to Whites, and Blacks compared to Asians. Nonresponders reported lower frequency of past 28 days drinking, lower levels of past-year and past 28-days heavy episodic drinking, and more time spent preparing for classes than responders. The most common reasons for nonresponse were "too busy" (45.7%), "not interested" (18.1%), and "forgot to complete survey" (18.1%). Reasons for nonresponse to Web surveys among college students are similar to reasons for nonresponse to mail and telephone surveys, and some nonresponse reasons vary as a function of alcohol involvement.

Measuring college students' alcohol consumption in natural drinking environments: field methodologies for bars and parties.

In recent years researchers have paid substantial attention to the issue of college students' alcohol use. One limitation to the current literature is an over reliance on retrospective, self-report survey data. This article presents field methodologies for measuring college students' alcohol consumption in natural drinking environments. Specifically, we present the methodology from a large field study of student drinking environments along with some illustrative data from the same study. Field surveys, observational methods, sampling issues, and breath alcohol concentration sample collection are detailed.

Alcohol involvement and participation in residential learning communities among first-year college students.

OBJECTIVE: Residential learning communities (RLCs) on U.S. college campuses are assumed to build connections between formal learning opportunities and students' living environment. The objective of this longitudinal study was to examine the association between living in RLCs and alcohol misuse among first-year undergraduate students. METHOD: A Web-based survey was self-administered to a stratified random sample of 923 first-year undergraduate students (52.7% women) attending a large Midwestern research university. The sample included 342 students who lived and participated in RLCs (termed RLC) and 581 students who did not participate in RLCs (termed non-RLC). First-year students were asked about their drinking behaviors before college, during their first semester, and approximately 6 months later during their second semester. RESULTS: RLC students reported lower rates of drinking than non-RLC students before college. RLC students reported lower rates of drinking and fewer alcohol-related consequences than non-RLC students during the first and second semesters. Maximum drinks in 1 day increased from precollege to first semester, and this increase was larger among non-RLC students than RLC students. The number of drinks per occasion and alcohol-related consequences increased between first semester and second semester for all students regardless of RLC status. CONCLUSIONS: Lower rates of alcohol misuse among RLC students predate their entrance into college, and the increase in drinking from precollege to first semester is lower in magnitude among RLC students. RLCs' influence involves selection and socialization processes. These findings have implications for prevention and intervention efforts aimed at incoming first-year undergraduate students.

The relationship between alcohol use and cigarette smoking in a sample of undergraduate college students.

During the decade of the 1990s, smoking prevalence increased nearly 30% in the college student population. Although most college students initiate smoking before the age of 18, recent evidence suggests a sizable minority of undergraduates report starting smoking while in college. This study examined the concurrent use of alcohol and tobacco as well as the relationship between alcohol use and smoking initiation among a sample of undergraduate students attending a large public university in the southwestern United States. We defined three categories of smoking status for this study: never smokers (n=777), experimenters (n=158), and smokers (n=178). Both experimenters and smokers reported consuming significantly more drinks per occasion in the past 28 days and more drinks on one occasion in the past 2 weeks compared to never smokers; however, there was no significant difference between experimenters and smokers on either of these measures of consumption. The results of two multinomial logistic regression models showed that measures of alcohol consumption and drinking frequency were significantly associated with being an experimenter or smoker after controlling for demographic and other drug use covariates. Results of a logistic regression analysis revealed a significant relationship between past year drinking frequency and smoking initiation among respondents who reported that they were not smoking at all 12 months prior to their survey participation. The influence of alcohol consumption on smoking initiation among college students is discussed.

Environmental and individual predictors of error in field estimates of blood alcohol concentration: a multilevel analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Using self-report survey data and measures of breath alcohol concentration (BrAC), this study examined the validity of an estimate of blood alcohol concentration (eBAC). Differences between eBAC and BrAC were modeled to identify sources of error related to survey-derived eBAC. Further, using hierarchical multilevel analyses, environmental event characteristics were examined as sources of eBAC error. METHOD: College students were interviewed and provided breath samples at randomly selected parties on Friday and Saturday nights. Interviews included items assessing the total number of drinks consumed, duration of drinking event, gender, and weight, which allowed for the calculation of eBAC. RESULTS: Overall, eBACs were inaccurate. Total number of drinks consumed was associated with underestimates of eBAC, whereas time drinking was associated with overestimates of eBAC. Environmental variables, including party size, rowdy behavior, having food present, and observing many intoxicated partygoers, were also associated with eBAC errors. CONCLUSIONS: Current self-report survey methodology to calculate eBAC may be insufficient to estimate BAC with any accuracy. Environmental factors associated with the last drinking event for which BAC is being estimated should be considered when calculating eBAC.