Mothering under political violence: Post-traumatic symptoms, observed maternal parenting practices and child externalising behaviour.

Using the family stress model as our conceptual framework, we explored whether observed maternal parenting practices (positive and coercive) account for the associations between mothers' post-traumatic stress symptoms and children's externalising behaviours. Mothers' self-reported post-traumatic stress symptoms, observed maternal practices, and reports of children's externalising behaviour were collected from 123 Israeli mothers and their children, who were exposed to ongoing rocket attacks in southern Israel. A structural equation model revealed that mothers' post-traumatic stress symptoms were linked with greater maternal coercive parenting practices, which in turn were associated with more externalising behaviours in children. The study highlights the crucial role of maternal distress and mothers' parenting skills in the development of externalising behaviours in children exposed to chronic political violence. These results suggest that prevention interventions designed to promote parenting skills for mothers exposed to political violence may be beneficial for children's healthy development.

The contribution of maternal care and control, and community type to children's adjustment to political violence.

OBJECTIVES: This study explored the behavioral and emotional adjustment of Israeli school-age children who are exposed to political violence. Based on Bronfenbrenner's (1986) ecological model and ecological model of psychosocial trauma (Harvey, 2007), we examined the direct contribution of exposure, gender, maternal characteristics (mother's posttraumatic stress symptoms [PTSS], maternal care and maternal control), and community type (development town vs. kibbutz), to school-age children's adjustment. In addition, we examined whether maternal characteristics and community type moderated the association between exposure and adjustment. METHOD: There were 121 mother-child dyads from the development town of Sderot (n = 62) and from the surrounding kibbutzim (n = 58) participated. RESULTS: Revealed that being a boy, living in Sderot, and mothers' higher PTSS, contributed directly to children's total difficulties (i.e., externalizing and internalizing problems), and that maternal control moderated the association between personal exposure and children's total difficulties. Furthermore, being a girl and mother's higher PTSS and higher maternal control contributed directly to children's PTSS. Mother's PTSS moderated the association between personal exposure and children's PTSS. Maternal care was not associated with children's adjustment. CONCLUSIONS: Both the child's gender and the type of community in which he or she lives are associated with maternal distress and children's adjustment to political violence. (PsycINFO Database Record

Adolescents on the Front Line: Exposure to Shelling Via Television and the Parental Role.

OBJECTIVES: Research suggests that exposure to traumatic content via television inadvertently increases posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) as well as psychological distress, especially among adolescent viewers. The aim of the current study was to assess the effect of news consumption on PTSS and general distress among adolescents who live in a war area, as well as to examine the role of parents as intermediaries of news broadcasting. METHOD: A total of 65 adolescents who live in a war zone filled out the Child Post Traumatic Stress Reaction Index, the Brief Symptoms Inventory, and a scale measuring the level of real-life exposure, news broadcast consumption, and parents as intermediaries of news broadcasting. RESULTS: A main effect for real-life exposure on both PTSS and general distress was revealed. Interestingly, a three-way interaction between real-life exposure, television exposure, and parents as intermediators was found for general distress. Only under low real-life exposure did parents as intermediaries buffer the effect of television exposure on general distress. CONCLUSIONS: Parental intermediation of news broadcasting of traumatic events, especially in situations of continuous, real-life exposure, is essential.

Posttraumatic stress disorder reactions among children with learning disabilities exposed to terror attacks.

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) reactions were examined among adolescents exposed to terror attacks. In the first stage, 56 children with learning disabilities (LDs) were compared with 48 nonclinical controls aged 14 to 18 years. Posttraumatic stress disorder in children with LD was significantly higher than in the control group. Next, hierarchic regression predicting PTSD reactions among children with LD was performed. Results revealed that personal exposure to terror, past personal threatening life events, avoidant and anxious attachment, and the anxious attachment x threatening past events interaction contributed significantly to the explained variance of PTSD. Examination of the source of this interaction revealed that adolescents high in anxious attachment who underwent more threatening past life events were more prone to PTSD when exposed personally to terror attacks. The findings suggest that adolescents with LD have difficulties in cognitive processing of traumatic events. This group of adolescents is in double jeopardy for developing PTSD symptoms if they personally experienced threatening events in the past and are characterized by anxious attachment. The anxious attachment damages their self-regulation, intensifies their distress, and exacerbates the risk for PTSD. Hence, special attention and specific intervention are needed for youth with LD to enhance their coping strategies.

Israeli youth in the Second Intifada: PTSD and future orientation.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between exposure to political violence and posttraumatic symptoms, future orientation, and attitudes toward peace. METHOD: A total of 740 boys and girls aged 11.5-15 years from Jerusalem, Gilo, and the Jewish settlements in the disputed territories were assessed in the summer of 2001 using an exposure to terror questionnaire, Child Posttraumatic Stress Reaction Index, Children's Future Orientation Scale, and a question regarding the future of peace talks. RESULTS: A substantially higher percentage of youths in the settlements (27.6%) than in Jerusalem (12.4%) or Gilo (11.2%) reported moderate to very severe levels of posttraumatic symptoms. Children's Future Orientation responses were moderately optimistic. About two thirds of the adolescents in the settlements rejected the idea of peace talks at any time, whereas around half of the youths in Jerusalem and Gilo supported the continuation of peace talks. Exposure was related to both PTSD symptoms and attitudes toward peace but not to future orientation. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings present the complex interrelationship of political violence, posttraumatic stress disorder, and attitudes toward peace and raise the need for a combined mental health and peace education intervention to prevent the often overlooked vicious cycle of violence and traumatization.

Palestinian youth of the Intifada: PTSD and future orientation.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the nature of chronic exposure to terror and its psychological and cognitive toll on Palestinian youths, as is reflected in posttraumatic symptoms, future orientation, and attitudes toward peace. METHOD: In the summer of 2001, 245 Palestinian and 300 Israeli-Palestinian adolescents in the sixth to ninth grades were assessed with self-report questionnaires that measured level of exposure to terror, posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, anger, dissociation, future orientation, and attitudes toward peace. RESULTS: Palestinians experienced significantly more traumatic events than Israeli Palestinians; the groups did not differ, however, in their subjective perception of the threat. Palestinians also reported higher levels of posttraumatic symptoms, more pessimistic future orientation, and less favorable attitudes toward peace negotiations than the Israeli Palestinians. The groups did not differ in reported psychological symptoms related to chronic exposure to stress. In both groups, subjective perceptions of the threat were implicated in the pathogenic sequelae of exposure to terror-induced trauma. CONCLUSIONS: Chronic or repeated exposure to terror may be related to complex posttraumatic symptoms beyond those specified in DSM-IV or ICD-10, including negative personal and national future orientation. The role of subjective appraisal deserves professional attention.