GTSE1-driven ZEB1 Stabilization Promotes Pulmonary Fibrosis Through the Epithelial-to-mesenchymal Transition.

G2 and S phase-expressed protein 1 (GTSE1) has been implicated in the development of pulmonary fibrosis (PF); however, its biological function, molecular mechanism, and potential clinical implications remain unknown. Here, we explored the genomic data of patients with idiopathic PF (IPF) and found that GTSE1 expression is elevated in their lung tissues, but rarely expressed in normal lung tissues. Thus, we explored the biological role and downstream events of GTSE1 using IPF patient tissues and PF mouse models. The comprehensive bioinformatics analyses suggested that the increase of GTSE1 in IPF is linked to the enhanced gene signature for the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), leading us to investigate the potential interaction between GTSE1 and EMT transcription factors. GTSE1 preferentially binds to the less stable form of zinc-finger E-box-binding homeobox 1 (ZEB1), the unphosphorylated form at Ser585, inhibiting ZEB1 degradation. Consistently, the ZEB1 protein level in IPF patient and PF mouse tissues correlates with the GTSE1 protein level and the amount of collagen accumulation, representing fibrosis severity. Collectively, our findings highlight the GTSE1-ZEB1 axis as a novel driver of the pathological EMT characteristic during PF development and progression, supporting further investigation into GTSE1-targeting approaches for PF treatment.

Engineered lipid nanoparticles enable therapeutic gene silencing of GTSE1 for the treatment of liver fibrosis.

Liver fibrosis is characterized by abnormal accumulation of extracellular matrix proteins, disrupting normal liver function. Despite its significant health impact, effective treatments remain limited. Here, we present the development of engineered lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for targeted RNA therapeutic delivery in the liver. We investigated the therapeutic potential of modulating the G2 and S-phase expressed 1 (GTSE1) protein for treating liver fibrosis. Through screening, we identified P138Y LNP as a potent candidate with superior delivery efficiency and lower toxicity. Using these engineered LNPs, we successfully delivered siGTSE1 to hepatocytes, significantly reducing collagen accumulation and restoring liver function in a fibrosis animal model. Additionally, GTSE1 downregulation altered miRNA expression and upregulated hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α). These findings suggest that therapeutic gene silencing of GTSE1 is a promising strategy for treating liver fibrosis by regenerating liver phenotypes and functions.

Innate immune responses against mRNA vaccine promote cellular immunity through IFN-ß at the injection site.

mRNA vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 have revolutionized vaccine development, but their immunological mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we investigate injection site responses of mRNA vaccines by generating a comprehensive single-cell transcriptome profile upon lipid nanoparticle (LNP) or LNP-mRNA challenge in female BALB/c mice. We show that LNP-induced stromal pro-inflammatory responses and mRNA-elicited type I interferon responses dominate the initial injection site responses. By tracking the fate of delivered mRNA, we discover that injection site fibroblasts are highly enriched with the delivered mRNA and that they express IFN-ß specifically in response to the mRNA component, not to the LNP component of mRNA vaccines. Moreover, the mRNA-LNP, but not LNP alone, induces migratory dendritic cells highly expressing IFN-stimulated genes (mDC_ISGs) at the injection site and draining lymph nodes. When co-injected with LNP-subunit vaccine, IFN-ß induces mDC_ISGs at the injection site, and importantly, it substantially enhances antigen-specific cellular immune responses. Furthermore, blocking IFN-ß signaling at the injection site significantly decreases mRNA vaccine-induced cellular immune responses. Collectively, these data highlight the importance of injection site fibroblasts and IFN-ß signaling during early immune responses against the mRNA vaccine and provide detailed information on the initial chain of immune reactions elicited by mRNA vaccine injection.

Optimization of polyethylene glycol shielding and mannose density on the lipid nanoparticles for efficient delivery to macrophages and spleens.

This study compared the effects of polyethylene glycol (PEG) shielding and mannose-conjugated ligands density on lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for intracellular uptake to macrophages in vitro and accumulation in spleens in vivo. Fabricated phosphatidyl serine-incorporated LNPs (sLNPs) was physically decorated with mannose-conjugated DSPE-PEG (DPM) at different DPM/LNP molar ratios achieving the DPM density from 0 to 0.6 PEGs/nm2. We demonstrated that low PEG shielding sLNPs with mannose ligands (sLNP-DPMs) displayed superior uptake to macrophages (RAW 264.7 cells) compared with high PEG shielding sLNP-DPMs in vitro. However, high PEG shielding sLNP-DPMs showed significant spleen accumulation compared with low PEG shielding sLNP-DPMs in vivo after intravenous injection. In particular, high PEG shielding sLNPs coated with DSPE-methoxyPEG (DP) and DPM mixture at DP/DPM molar ratios of 5/5 exhibited greater accumulation in red pulp of spleens than naked sLNPs by 2.7-folds in vivo. These results suggested that the optimal PEG shielding and mannose densities per a particle might be different between in vitro cellular uptake to macrophages and in vivo spleen accumulation after systemic administration. Taken together, precision-tailored LNP-surface modifications achieved through optimization of PEG shielding and mannose density can greatly enhance accumulation of LNPs in red pulp of spleens, which could be applied for the delivery of nucleic acid-based drugs and vaccines to spleens in vivo.

Effects of Histidine Oligomers in Lipid Nanoparticles on siRNA Delivery.

In this study, histidine oligomer (oHis; 10mer)-incorporating LNPs (H10LNPs) are developed as a novel carrier for efficient siRNA delivery. Notably, the unmodified oHis (10mer) is greatly incorporated within LNPs through ionic interaction with siRNAs, which serves as an endosome escape enhancer. H10LNPs with a size of ≈65 nm demonstrate a significantly enhanced extent of endosomal escape, as evidenced by calcein assay and confocal microscopy images of intracellular fluorescence, surpassing conventional LNPs. Furthermore, the half inhibitory concentration (IC50) of the human endogenous globotriaosylceramide synthase (Gb3 synthase) gene in H10LNPs-treated cells exhibits a significant threefold decrease, compared to that in LNP-treated cells. Notably, H10LNPs maintain comparable biocompatibility and biodistribution both in vitro and in vivo. Considering that the fabricated siRNA H10LNPs exhibit excellent biocompatibility and superior gene silencing activity over conventional LNPs, these particles can be harnessed for the safe delivery of therapeutic siRNAs. Additionally, this study introduces promising, feasible, simple, and alternative formulation processes for integrating unmodified functional cationic peptides into LNPs to enhance the delivery efficiency of a wide range of nucleic acid-based drugs.

Development of Lipid Nanoparticle Formulation for the Repeated Administration of mRNA Therapeutics.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, mRNA vaccines emerged as a rapid and effective solution for global immunization. The success of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines has increased interest in the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for the in vivo delivery of mRNA therapeutics. Although mRNA exhibits robust expression profiles, transient protein expression is often observed, raising uncertainty regarding the frequency of its administration. Additionally, various RNA therapeutics may necessitate repeated dosing to achieve optimal therapeutic outcomes. Nevertheless, the impact of repeated administrations of mRNA/LNP on immune responses and protein expression efficacy remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the influence of the formulation parameters, specifically ionizable lipids and polyethylene glycol (PEG) lipids, on the repeat administration of mRNA/LNP. Our findings revealed that ionizable lipids had no discernible impact on the dose-responsive efficacy of repeat administrations, whereas the lipid structure and molar ratio of PEG lipids were primary factors that affected mRNA/LNP performance. The optimization of the LNP formulation with PEG lipid confirmed the sustained dose-responsive efficacy of mRNA after repeated administrations. This study highlights the critical importance of optimizing LNP formulations for mRNA therapeutics requiring repeated administrations.

In vivo genome editing using 244-cis LNPs and low-dose AAV achieves therapeutic threshold in hemophilia A mice.

Gene therapy and rebalancing therapy have emerged as promising approaches for treating hemophilia A, but there are limitations, such as temporary efficacy due to individual differences. Genome editing for hemophilia has shown long-term therapeutic potential in preclinical trials. However, a cautious approach is necessary because genome editing is irreversible. Therefore, we attempted to induce low-level human factor 8 (hF8) gene knockin (KI) using 244-cis lipid nanoparticles and low-dose adeno-associated virus to minimize side effects and achieve a therapeutic threshold in hemophilia A mice. We selected the serpin family C member 1, SerpinC1, locus as a target to enable a combined rebalancing strategy with hF8 KI to augment efficacy. This strategy improved blood coagulation activity and reduced hemophilic complications without adverse effects. Furthermore, hemophilic mice with genome editing exhibit enhanced survival for 40 weeks. Here, we demonstrate an effective, safe, and sustainable treatment for hemophilia A. This study provides valuable information to establish safe and long-term genome-editing-mediated treatment strategies for treating hemophilia and other protein-deficient genetic diseases.

Novel piperazine-based ionizable lipid nanoparticles allow the repeated dose of mRNA to fibrotic lungs with improved potency and safety.

mRNA-based protein replacement therapy has received much attention as a novel intervention in clinical disease treatment. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are widely used for their therapeutic potential to efficiently deliver mRNA. However, clinical translation has been hampered by the immunogenicity of LNPs that may aggravate underlying disease states. Here, we report a novel ionizable LNP with enhanced potency and safety. The piperazine-based biodegradable ionizable lipid (244cis) was developed for LNP formulation and its level of protein expression and immunogenicity in the target tissue was evaluated. It was found that 244cis LNP enabled substantial expression of the target protein (human erythropoietin), while it minimally induced the secretion of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) as compared to other conventional LNPs. Selective lung targeting of 244cis LNP was further investigated in tdTomato transgenic mice with bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis (PF). The repeated administration of 244cis LNP with Cre recombinase mRNA achieved complete transfection of lung endothelial cells (~80%) and over 40% transfection of Sca-1-positive fibroblasts. It was shown that 244cis LNP allows the repeated dose of mRNA without the loss of activity due to its low immunogenicity. Our results demonstrate that 244cis LNP has great potential for the treatment of chronic diseases in the lungs with improved potency and safety.

Immunogenicity of lipid nanoparticles and its impact on the efficacy of mRNA vaccines and therapeutics.

Several studies have utilized a lipid nanoparticle delivery system to enhance the effectiveness of mRNA therapeutics and vaccines. However, these nanoparticles are recognized as foreign materials by the body and stimulate innate immunity, which in turn impacts adaptive immunity. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the specific type of innate immune response triggered by lipid nanoparticles. This article provides an overview of the immunological response in the body, explores how lipid nanoparticles activate the innate immune system, and examines the adverse effects and immunogenicity-related development pathways associated with these nanoparticles. Finally, we highlight and explore strategies for regulating the immunogenicity of lipid nanoparticles.

Anti-glioma effect of ginseng-derived exosomes-like nanoparticles by active blood-brain-barrier penetration and tumor microenvironment modulation.

Inhibition of tumor growth and normalization of immune responses in the tumor microenvironment (TME) are critical issues for improving cancer therapy. However, in the treatment of glioma, effective nanomedicine has limited access to the brain because of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Previously, we demonstrated nano-sized ginseng-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (GENs) consisting of phospholipids including various bioactive components, and evaluated anti-tumor immune responses in T cells and Tregs to inhibit tumor progression. It was found that the enhanced targeting ability of GENs to the BBB and glioma induced a significant therapeutic effect and exhibited strong efficacy in recruiting M1 macrophage expression in the TME. GENs were demonstrated to be successful candidates in glioma therapeutics both in vitro and in vivo, suggesting excellent potential for inhibiting glioma progression and regulating tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs).

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for in vivo RNA delivery and their breakthrough technology for future applications.

RNA therapeutics show a significant breakthrough for the treatment of otherwise incurable diseases and genetic disorders by regulating disease-related gene expression. The successful development of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines further emphasizes the potential of RNA therapeutics in the prevention of infectious diseases as well as in the treatment of chronic diseases. However, the efficient delivery of RNA into cells remains a challenge, and nanoparticle delivery systems such as lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are necessary to fully realize the potential of RNA therapeutics. While LNPs provide a highly efficient platform for the in vivo delivery of RNA by overcoming various biological barriers, several challenges remain to be resolved for further development and regulatory approval. These include a lack of targeted delivery to extrahepatic organs and a gradual loss of therapeutic potency with repeated doses. In this review, we highlight the fundamental aspects of LNPs and their uses in the development of novel RNA therapeutics. Recent advances in LNP-based therapeutics and preclinical/clinical studies are overviewed. Lastly, we discuss the current limitations of LNPs and introduce breakthrough technologies that might overcome these challenges in future applications.

In vivo genome editing for hemophilia B therapy by the combination of rebalancing and therapeutic gene knockin using a viral and non-viral vector.

Recent therapeutic strategies for hemophilia include long-term therapeutic gene expression using adeno-associated virus (AAV) and rebalancing therapy via the downregulation of anticoagulant pathways. However, these approaches have limitations in immune responses or insufficiency to control acute bleeding. Thus, we developed a therapeutic strategy for hemophilia B by a combined rebalancing and human factor 9 (hF9) gene knockin (KI) using a lipid nanoparticle (LNP) and AAV. Antithrombin (AT; Serpin Family C Member 1 [Serpinc1]) was selected as the target anticoagulation pathway for the gene KI. First, the combined use of LNP-clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR) and AAV donor resulted in 20% insertions or deletions (indels) in Serpinc1 and 67% reduction of blood mouse AT concentration. Second, hF9 coding sequences were integrated into approximately 3% of the target locus. hF9 KI yielded approximately 1,000 ng/mL human factor IX (hFIX) and restored coagulation activity to a normal level. LNP-CRISPR injection caused sustained AT downregulation and hFIX production up to 63 weeks. AT inhibition and hFIX protein-production ability could be maintained by the proliferation of genetically edited hepatocytes in the case of partial hepatectomy. The co-administration of AAV and LNP showed no severe side effects except random integrations. Our results demonstrate hemophilia B therapy by a combination of rebalancing and hF9 KI using LNP and AAV.

Development of a Real-Time 6-DOF Motion-Tracking System for Robotic Computer-Assisted Implant Surgery.

In this paper, we investigate a motion-tracking system for robotic computer-assisted implant surgery. Failure of the accurate implant positioning may result in significant problems, thus an accurate real-time motion-tracking system is crucial for avoiding these issues in computer-assisted implant surgery. Essential features of the motion-tracking system are analyzed and classified into four categories: workspace, sampling rate, accuracy, and back-drivability. Based on this analysis, requirements for each category have been derived to ensure that the motion-tracking system meets the desired performance criteria. A novel 6-DOF motion-tracking system is proposed which demonstrates high accuracy and back-drivability, making it suitable for use in computer-assisted implant surgery. The results of the experiments confirm the effectiveness of the proposed system in achieving the essential features required for a motion-tracking system in robotic computer-assisted implant surgery.

Efficient Delivery of Globotriaosylceramide Synthase siRNA using Polyhistidine-Incorporated Lipid Nanoparticles.

In this study, a novel polyhistidine-incorporated lipid nanoparticle (pHis/LNP) is developed for the delivery of therapeutic globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) synthase siRNAs using a microfluidic device with pHis as a biocompatible method of endosome escape. To inhibit the expression of Gb3 synthase, six siRNAs against Gb3 synthase are designed and an optimal siRNA sequence is selected. Selected Gb3 synthase siRNA is incorporated into pHis/LNP to prepare a spherical siRNA pHis/LNP with a size of 62.5 ± 1.9 nm and surface charge of -13.3 ± 4.2 mV. The pHis/LNP successfully protects siRNAs from degradation in 50% serum condition for 72 h. Prepared pHis/LNP exhibits superior stability for 20 days and excellent biocompatibility for A549 cells. After treatment with fluorescence-labeled LNPs, dotted fluorescent signals are co-localized with Lysotracker in cells with LNPs, whereas strong and diffused fluorescence intensity is observed in cells with pHis/LNPs probably due to successful endosomal escape. The extent of Gb3 synthase gene silencing by siRNA pHis/LNP is greatly improved (6.0-fold) compared to that by siRNA/LNP. Taken together, considering that the fabricated siRNA pHis/LNP exhibits excellent biocompatibility and superior gene silencing activity over conventional LNP, these particles can be utilized for the delivery of a wide range of therapeutic siRNAs.

Artificial primary-miRNAs as a platform for simultaneous delivery of siRNA and antisense oligonucleotide for multimodal gene regulation.

Self-assembled nucleic acid nanostructures have been widely explored for gene therapy applications due to their unique advantages. Their roles are not limited to offer intracellular delivery platforms but additionally provide a biological function to induce targeted gene regulation. Here, we report a self-assembled artificial primary-miRNA (pri-miRNA) for achieving simultaneous multimodal gene regulation. Artificial pri-miRNAs are designed to play a role as substrate RNAs to recruit and interact with Drosha/DGCR8 (Microprocessor). Incorporation of functional RNA motifs and site-specific chemical modification of the primary miRNA are utilized for the biogenesis of two individual gene-regulating oligonucleotides. Once they are cleaved by the endogenous Drosha/DGCR8 complex, basal strands and pre-miRNA can be generated inside of cells. In this study, we integrated basal strands with either SMN2 ASO or anti-miR21 to induce multimodal gene regulation. Microprocessing and subsequent gene regulation were first evaluated by measuring the activity of reporter pre-miRNA. Chemical modification on the primary miRNA was optimized through a series of in vitro Drosha cleavage tests and targeted gene silencing in cells. Primary miRNA with the basal ASO or anti-miR strands showed a successful in vitro activity and resulted in simultaneous multimodal gene regulation in cells. Artificial primary miRNA may offer synergistic therapeutic effects for treating various diseases, including spinal muscular atrophy and cancer.

Anisotropic Plasmonic Gold Nanorod-Indocyanine Green@Reduced Graphene Oxide-Doxorubicin Nanohybrids for Image-Guided Enhanced Tumor Theranostics.

The unique physicochemical and localized surface plasmon resonance assets of gold nanorods (GNRs) have offered combined cancer treatments with real-time diagnosis by integrating diverse theragnostic modalities into a single nanoplatform. In this work, a unique multifunctional nanohybrid material based on GNRs was designed for in vitro and in vivo tumor imaging along with synergistic and combinatorial therapy of tumor. The hybrid material with size less than 100 nm was achieved by embedding indocyanine green (ICG) on mesoporous silica-coated GNRs with further wrapping of reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and then attached with doxorubicin (DOX) and polyethylene glycol. The nanohybrid unveiled noteworthy stability and competently protected the embedded ICG from further aggregation, photobleaching, and nucleophilic attack by encapsulation of GNRs-ICG with rGO. Such combination of GNRs-ICG with rGO and DOX served as a real-time near-infrared (NIR) contrast imaging agent for cancer diagnosis. The hybrid material exhibits high NIR absorption property along with three destined capabilities, such as, nanozymatic activity, photothermal activity, and an excellent drug carrier for drug delivery. The integrated properties of the nanohybrid were then utilized for the triple mode of combined therapeutics of tumor cells, through synergistic catalytic therapy and chemotherapy with combinatorial photothermal therapy to achieve the maximum cancer killing efficiency. It is assumed that the assimilated multimodal imaging and therapeutic capability in single nanoparticle platform is advantageous for future practical applications in cancer diagnosis, therapy, and molecular imaging.

mRNA vaccines: the most recent clinical applications of synthetic mRNA.

Synthetic mRNA has been considered as an emerging biotherapeutic agent for the past decades. Recently, the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has led to the first clinical use of synthetic mRNA. mRNA vaccines showed far surpassing influences on the public as compared to other vaccine platforms such as viral vector vaccines and recombinant protein vaccines. It allowed rapid development and production of vaccines that have never been achieved in history. Synthetic mRNA, called in vitro transcribed (IVT) mRNA, is the key component of mRNA vaccines. It has several advantages over conventional gene-expressing systems such as plasmid DNA and viral vectors. It can translate proteins in the cytoplasm by structurally resembling natural mRNA and exhibit various protein expression patterns depending on how it is engineered. Another advantage is that synthetic mRNA enables fast, scalable, and cost-effective production. Therefore, starting with the mRNA vaccine, synthetic mRNA is now in the spotlight as a promising new drug development agent. In this review, we will summarize the latest IVT mRNA technology such as new mRNA structures or large-scale production. In addition, the nature of the innate immunogenicity of IVT mRNA will be discussed along with its roles in the development of vaccines. Finally, the principles of the mRNA vaccine and the future direction of synthetic mRNA will be provided.

In vivo delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 using lipid nanoparticles enables antithrombin gene editing for sustainable hemophilia A and B therapy.

Hemophilia is a hereditary disease that remains incurable. Although innovative treatments such as gene therapy or bispecific antibody therapy have been introduced, substantial unmet needs still exist with respect to achieving long-lasting therapeutic effects and treatment options for inhibitor patients. Antithrombin (AT), an endogenous negative regulator of thrombin generation, is a potent genome editing target for sustainable treatment of patients with hemophilia A and B. In this study, we developed and optimized lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to deliver Cas9 mRNA along with single guide RNA that targeted AT in the mouse liver. The LNP-mediated CRISPR-Cas9 delivery resulted in the inhibition of AT that led to improvement in thrombin generation. Bleeding-associated phenotypes were recovered in both hemophilia A and B mice. No active off-targets, liver-induced toxicity, and substantial anti-Cas9 immune responses were detected, indicating that the LNP-mediated CRISPR-Cas9 delivery was a safe and efficient approach for hemophilia therapy.

Protein-RNA interaction guided chemical modification of Dicer substrate RNA nanostructures for superior in vivo gene silencing.

Dicer substrate RNA is an alternative gene silencing agent to canonical siRNA. Enhanced in vitro gene silencing can be achieved with RNA substrates by facilitating Ago2 loading of dsRNA after Dicer processing. However, the in vivo use of Dicer substrate RNA has been hindered by its instability and immunogenicity in the body due to the lack of proper chemical modification in the structure. Here, we report a universal chemical modification approach for Dicer substrate RNA nanostructures by optimizing protein-RNA interactions in the RNAi pathway. Proteins involved in the RNAi pathway were utilized for evaluating their recognition and binding of substrate RNA. It was found that conventional chemical modifications could severely affect the binding and processing of substrate RNA, consequently reducing RNAi activity. Protein-RNA interaction guided chemical modification was introduced to RNA nanostructures, and their gene silencing activity was assessed. The optimized RNA nanostructures showed excellent binding and processability with RNA binding proteins and offered the enhancement of in vivo EC50 up to 1/8 of its native form.

Plasmon-Triggered Upconversion Emissions and Hot Carrier Injection for Combinatorial Photothermal and Photodynamic Cancer Therapy.

Despite the unique ability of lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) to convert near-infrared (NIR) light to high-energy UV-vis radiation, low quantum efficiency has rendered their application unpractical in biomedical fields. Here, we report anatase titania-coated plasmonic gold nanorods decorated with UCNPs (Au NR@aTiO2@UCNPs) for combinational photothermal and photodynamic therapy to treat cancer. Our novel architecture employs the incorporation of an anatase titanium dioxide (aTiO2) photosensitizer as a spacer and exploits the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) properties of the Au core. The LSPR-derived near-field enhancement induces a threefold boost of upconversion emissions, which are re-absorbed by neighboring aTiO2 and Au nanocomponents. Photocatalytic experiments strongly infer that LSPR-induced hot electrons are injected into the conduction band of aTiO2, generating reactive oxygen species. As phototherapeutic agents, our hybrid nanostructures show remarkable in vitro anticancer effect under NIR light [28.0% cancer cell viability against Au NR@aTiO2 (77.3%) and UCNP@aTiO2 (98.8%)] ascribed to the efficient radical formation and LSPR-induced heat generation, with cancer cell death primarily following an apoptotic pathway. In vivo animal studies further confirm the tumor suppression ability of Au NR@aTiO2@UCNPs through combinatorial photothermal and photodynamic effect. Our hybrid nanomaterials emerge as excellent multifunctional phototherapy agents, providing a valuable addition to light-triggered cancer treatments in deep tissue.