Does the increase in ambient CO2 concentration elevate allergy risks posed by oak pollen?

Oak pollen is a major respiratory allergen in Korea, and the distribution of oak trees is expected to increase by ecological succession and climate change. One of the drivers of climate change is increasing CO2, which is also known to amplify the allergy risk of weed pollen by inducing elevated allergenic protein content. However, the impact of CO2 concentration on tree pollen is not clearly understood due to the experimental difficulties in carrying out extended CO2 treatment. To study the response of pollen production of sawtooth oak trees (Quercus acutissima) to elevated levels of ambient CO2, three open-top chambers at the National Institute of Forest Science in Suwon, Korea were utilized with daytime (8 am-6 pm) CO2 concentrations of ambient (× 1.0, ~ 400 ppm), × 1.4 (~ 560 ppm), and × 1.8 (~ 720 ppm) treatments. Each chamber had three sawtooth oak trees planted in September 2009. One or two trees per chamber matured to bloom in 2016. Five to six catkins were selected per tree and polyethylene bags were attached to collect pollen grains. The total number of catkins per tree was counted and the number and weight of pollen grains per catkin were measured. Oak allergen-Que a 1 (Allergon Co., Uppsala, Sweden)-was extracted and purified to make an ELISA kit by which the antigen levels in the pollen samples were quantified. Total pollen counts per tree of the × 1.4 and × 1.8 treatments showed significant increase of 353 and 1299%, respectively, from the × 1.0 treatment (p < 0.001). Allergenic protein contents at the × 1.4 and × 1.8 treatments also showed significant increase of 12 and 11%, respectively (p = 0.011). The × 1.8 treatment induced significant difference from the × 1.0 treatment in terms of pollen production and allergenic protein content, whereas the × 1.4 treatment showed mixed significance. In summary, the oak trees under the elevated CO2 levels, which are expected in the changing climate, produced significantly higher amount of pollen and allergenic protein than under the present air conditions.

Plant hormone-assisted early family selection in Pinus densiflora via a retrospective approach.

In an even-aged pine forest trees can vary considerably in stem size. We examined the basis for this anomaly using a retrospective approach. Twelve open-pollinated families of Pinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. were deliberately chosen for their variation in stem volumes at age 32 years. Seedlings obtained from these families were grown to age 6 months under optimal nursery conditions. Endogenous levels of growth hormones (auxin [IAA] and gibberellins [GAs]) and expression of the GA biosynthesis gene, PdGA20ox1, all assessed at age 3 months, were significantly correlated, across family, with seedling stem and/or shoot dry biomass at age 6 months. Retrospective comparisons of seedling growth, seedling stem tissue GA(20) and seedling stem expression levels of PdGA20ox1 were then made, across family, with tree stem growth at age 32 years. Age 6 months length and shoot dry biomass at age 6 months showed positive and significant Pearson's correlations with age 32 years tree stem diameters and a tree stem volume index, as did seedling stem tissue GA(20). Even seedling stem PdGA20ox1 expression levels were positively and near significantly (P = 0.088) correlated with age 32 years tree stem diameters. Auxin and GAs control nursery growth of seedlings at the family level, and this control also extends, for GAs at least, to field growth of older trees. We propose that family differences in PdGA20ox1 gene expression, and thus endogenous GA levels, may explain much of the natural variation seen for tree stem size in even-aged pine forests. If our hypothesis is correct, then the heritable components of variation in tree stem growth capacity should be predictable by hormonal and gene expression profiling. Such profiling, combined with the measurement of seedling phenotypic growth characters, could have the potential to accelerate the early selection of those conifer families that possess traits for inherently rapid stem wood growth.

Soil nutrient bioavailability and nutrient content of pine trees (Pinus thunbergii) in areas impacted by acid deposition in Korea.

Acid deposition has caused detrimental effects on tree growth near industrial areas of the world. Preliminary work has indicated that concentrations of NO(3-), SO(4)(2-), F( - ) and Al in soil solutions were 2 to 33 times higher in industrial areas compared to non-industrial areas in Korea. This study evaluated soil nutrient bioavailability and nutrient contents of red pine (Pinus thunbergii) needles in forest soils of industrial and non-industrial areas of Korea. Results confirm that forest soils of industrial areas have been acidified mainly by deposition of sulfate, resulting in increases of Al, Fe and Mn and decreases of Ca, Mg and K concentrations in soils and soil solutions. In soils of industrial areas, the molar ratios of Ca/Al and Mg/Al in forest soils were <2, which can lead to lower levels and availability of nutrients for tree growth. The Ca/Al molar ratio of Pinus thunbergii needles on non-industrial sites was 15, while that of industrial areas was 10. Magnesium concentrations in needles of Pinus thunbergii were lower in soils of industrial areas and the high levels of acid cations such as Al and Mn in these soils may have antagonized the uptake of base cations like Mg. Continued acidification can further reduce uptake of base cations by trees. Results show that Mg deficiency and high concentrations of Al and Mn in soil solution can be limiting factors for Pinus thunbergii growth in industrial areas of Korea.

Supplementation of methionine enhanced the ergothioneine accumulation in the Ganoderma neo-japonicum mycelia.

The methods for increasing the production of ergothioneine (ERG) were investigated by using the mycelial culture of several mushroom species, primarily Ganoderma neo-japonicum. We first found that ERG was accumulated at the different levels in mycelia and fruiting bodies, respectively, depending on the mushroom species. As a result of adding various amino acids to the mycelial culture medium, methionine (Met) was shown to be the most effective additive. The most preferable condition of the additive was the combination of 4 mM Met and 1 g/l of yeast extract, and the maximum ERG production reached approximately 1.7 mg/l, which corresponds to 2.4 times (0.7 mg/l) that in the basal medium without Met. Although the supplementation of Met enhanced the ERG production, the mycelial growth was significantly inhibited. Furthermore, the analysis of amino acids in the culture medium revealed that the Met additive reduced the consumption rates of most amino acids tested, probably due to the decrease in mycelial growth. Taking these results into consideration, we suggest that the addition of Met to the mycelial culture medium is an efficient way to enhance the ERG production in economically important mushroom species.

Ergothioneine contents in fruiting bodies and their enhancement in mycelial cultures by the addition of methionine.

The levels of ergothioneine (ERG), which have been shown to act as an excellent antioxidant, were determined in both fruiting bodies and mycelia of various mushroom species. We found that ERG accumulated at different levels in fruiting bodies of mushrooms and showed up to a 92.3-fold difference between mushrooms. We also found that ERG accumulated at higher levels in mycelia than in fruiting bodies of economically important mushroom species such as Ganoderma neo-japonicum, G. applanatum and Paecilomyces tenuipes. The addition of 2 mM methionine (Met) to mycelial culture medium increased the ERG contents in most mushroom species tested, indicating that Met is a good additive to enhance the ERG levels in a variety of mushroom species. Taking these results into consideration, we suggest that the addition of Met to the mycelial culture medium is an efficient way to enhance the antioxidant properties in economically important mushroom species.

Factors influencing the production of water-soluble endopolysaccharides and exopolysaccharides from Lentinus lepideus and their effects on immune cytokine production.

An efficient method to produce water-soluble polysaccharides from Lentinus lepideus is described. The productivity of both endopolysaccharides (PPS) and exopolysaccharides (EPS) was compared under various culture conditions. The effect of treating their own PPS and EPS on immune cytokine production was also studied in relation to culture factors. High yield production of EPS required moderate culture temperature (25 degrees ) as well as long culture period (16-20 days). In contrast, PPS production required high culture temperature (30 degrees ) and short culture period ( days). Most of the carbon sources did not affect polysaccharides and mycelial production except for sucrose. Immune cytokine levels in the EPS treatment varied among carbon sources or culture periods. PPS did not appear to affect much on the production of cytokines, regardless of the culturing factors, except for the culture period. These results suggest that the optimal culture conditions for L. lepideus vary according to culture purposes, and different culture conditions should be used for different targets including mycelial biomass, EPS, and PPS. Whereas the immunomodulating activity of EPS appeared to be affected by culture conditions in L. lepideus, that of PPS did not.

Improvement of Ergone Production from Mycelial Culture of Polyporus umbellatus.

Ergone,a fungal metabolite derived from ergosterol,was previously isolated and identified from Polyporus umbellatus. Ergone is a major component of P. umbellatus known to have anti-aldosteronic diuretic effect and also displays cytotoxic activities. Most of mushroom's fruit bodies used for test contained less than 10 µg/g of ergone. But P. umbellatus have larger amount of ergone than any other mushrooms. In order to improve the ergone production from the submerged culture of P. umbellatus, several factors including medium composition,culture conditions (temperature and pH) and different combinations of co-cultivation with various mycelia were studied. Among various carbon sources examined,starch proved to be most effective for the production of mycelia. The optimum pH and temperature for a flask culture of P. umbellatus mycelia were found to be 4.5 and 25℃,respectively. Under the optimized culture conditions,both the ergone production (86.9 µg/g) and mycelial growth (3.5 g/l) increased when P. umbellatus was cultured with Armillariella mellea. When the optimized conditions were applied,both mycelium and ergone production were significantly enhanced.

Control of cytokine gene expression by PG101, a water-soluble extract prepared from Lentinus lepideus.

A water-soluble extract from Lentinus lepideus mycelium, named PG101, has been shown to control the expression of various cytokines [M. Jin, H.J. Jung, J.J. Choi, H.Jeon, J.H. Oh, B. Kim, S.S. Shin, J.K. Lee, K. Yoon, S. Kim, Activation of selective transcription factors and cytokines by water-soluble extract from Lentinus lepideus, Exp. Biol. Med. (Maywood) 228 (2003) 749-758]. To understand its molecular mechanism(s), PG101-mediated activation of cytokines was studied at the RNA and protein levels. Results from Northern blot analysis indicated that the steady-state RNA levels of TNF-alpha and seven other cytokines were highly increased in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells treated with PG101. The RNA level of TNF-alpha, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta, MIP-3alpha, and IL-8 was not affected by the presence of cycloheximide, an inhibitor of the translation process, suggesting that they are the direct targets of PG101. A significantly high protein level of TNF-alpha, MIP-1alpha, and IL-8 remained detectable, even when cells were cultured with actinomycin D, 2h prior to the PG101 treatment. Our data indicate that PG101 controls selective cellular proteins, which play key roles in the innate immune system, at the transcriptional and post-translational levels.

Inhibitory effect of pine extract on alpha-glucosidase activity and postprandial hyperglycemia.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the inhibitory effect of pine bark extract (PBE) and needle extract on carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes and the hypoglycemic effect in diabetic mice (Lep(ob) [ob/ob]). METHODS: Pine bark and needle were dried and then placed in ethanol, and the extracts were assayed for the measurement of inhibition mode of PBE against alpha-amylase (EC 3.2.1.1) and alpha-glucosidase (EC 3.2.1.20). We also investigated the effect of long-term treatment with extracts on levels of postprandial blood glucose, body weight, food efficiency ratio, and gene expression of glucose transporter-4 in quadriceps muscle in diabetic mice (Lep(ob) [ob/ob]). RESULTS: The PBE showed competitive inhibition against salivary alpha-amylase and the combination of non-competitive and uncompetitive inhibition against yeast alpha-glucosidase. In animal experiments, PBE effectively suppressed the increase of postprandial blood glucose level by delaying absorption of diet, and body weights of the group that received PBE were significantly lower than that in the group administered 0.5% carboxylmethyl cellulose (control) 21 d after administration. CONCLUSIONS: PBE can be used to suppress postprandial hyperglycemia of diabetic patients. It also can be applied for control of obesity by decreasing the food efficiency ratio, especially carbohydrates.