SARS-CoV-2 aberrantly elevates mitochondrial bioenergetics to induce robust virus propagation.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a 'highly transmissible respiratory pathogen, leading to severe multi-organ damage. However, knowledge regarding SARS-CoV-2-induced cellular alterations is limited. In this study, we report that SARS-CoV-2 aberrantly elevates mitochondrial bioenergetics and activates the EGFR-mediated cell survival signal cascade during the early stage of viral infection. SARS-CoV-2 causes an increase in mitochondrial transmembrane potential via the SARS-CoV-2 RNA-nucleocapsid cluster, thereby abnormally promoting mitochondrial elongation and the OXPHOS process, followed by enhancing ATP production. Furthermore, SARS-CoV-2 activates the EGFR signal cascade and subsequently induces mitochondrial EGFR trafficking, contributing to abnormal OXPHOS process and viral propagation. Approved EGFR inhibitors remarkably reduce SARS-CoV-2 propagation, among which vandetanib exhibits the highest antiviral efficacy. Treatment of SARS-CoV-2-infected cells with vandetanib decreases SARS-CoV-2-induced EGFR trafficking to the mitochondria and restores SARS-CoV-2-induced aberrant elevation in OXPHOS process and ATP generation, thereby resulting in the reduction of SARS-CoV-2 propagation. Furthermore, oral administration of vandetanib to SARS-CoV-2-infected hACE2 transgenic mice reduces SARS-CoV-2 propagation in lung tissue and mitigates SARS-CoV-2-induced lung inflammation. Vandetanib also exhibits potent antiviral activity against various SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, including alpha, beta, delta and omicron, in in vitro cell culture experiments. Taken together, our findings provide novel insight into SARS-CoV-2-induced alterations in mitochondrial dynamics and EGFR trafficking during the early stage of viral infection and their roles in robust SARS-CoV-2 propagation, suggesting that EGFR is an attractive host target for combating COVID-19.

Generation of a lethal mouse model expressing human ACE2 and TMPRSS2 for SARS-CoV-2 infection and pathogenesis.

Mouse models expressing human ACE2 for coronavirus disease 2019 have been frequently used to understand its pathogenesis and develop therapeutic strategies against SARS-CoV-2. Given that human TMPRSS2 supports viral entry, replication, and pathogenesis, we established a double-transgenic mouse model expressing both human ACE2 and TMPRSS2 for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Co-overexpression of both genes increased viral infectivity in vitro and in vivo. Double-transgenic mice showed significant body weight loss, clinical disease symptoms, acute lung injury, lung inflammation, and lethality in response to viral infection, indicating that they were highly susceptible to SARS-CoV-2. Pretreatment with the TMPRSS2 inhibitor, nafamostat, effectively reduced virus-induced weight loss, viral replication, and mortality in the double-transgenic mice. Moreover, the susceptibility and differential pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 variants were demonstrated in this animal model. Together, our results demonstrate that double-transgenic mice could provide a highly susceptible mouse model for viral infection to understand SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis and evaluate antiviral therapeutics against coronavirus disease 2019.

The Significance of N6-Methyladenosine RNA Methylation in Regulating the Hepatitis B Virus Life Cycle.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) RNA methylation has recently emerged as a significant co-transcriptional modification involved in regulating various RNA functions. It plays a vital function in numerous biological processes. Enzymes referred to as m6A methyltransferases, such as the methyltransferaselike (METTL) 3-METTL14-Wilms tumor 1 (WT1)-associated protein (WTAP) complex, are responsible for adding m6A modifications, while m6A demethylases, including fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) and alkB homolog 5 (ALKBH5), can remove m6A methylation. The functions of m6A-methylated RNA are regulated through the recognition and interaction of m6A reader proteins. Recent research has shown that m6A methylation takes place at multiple sites within hepatitis B virus (HBV) RNAs, and the location of these modifications can differentially impact the HBV infection. The addition of m6A modifications to HBV RNA can influence its stability and translation, thereby affecting viral replication and pathogenesis. Furthermore, HBV infection can also alter the m6A modification pattern of host RNA, indicating the virus's ability to manipulate host cellular processes, including m6A modification. This manipulation aids in establishing chronic infection, promoting liver disease, and contributing to pathogenesis. A comprehensive understanding of the functional roles of m6A modification during HBV infection is crucial for developing innovative approaches to combat HBV-mediated liver disease. In this review, we explore the functions of m6A modification in HBV replication and its impact on the development of liver disease.

Current Status of Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Therapeutics, and Vaccines for the Re-Emerging Human Monkeypox Virus.

Monkeypox (Mpox) virus, a member of the Poxviridae family, causes a severe illness similar to smallpox, which is characterized by symptoms such as high fever, rash, and pustules. Human-to-human transmission cases have been reported but remained low since the first recorded case of human infection occurred in the Congo in 1970. Recently, Mpox has re-emerged, leading to an alarming surge in infections worldwide since 2022, originating in the United Kingdom. Consequently, the World Health Organization (WHO) officially declared the '2022-23 Mpox outbreak'. Currently, no specific therapy or vaccine is available for Mpox. Therefore, patients infected with Mpox are treated using conventional therapies developed for smallpox. However, the vaccines developed for smallpox have demonstrated only partial efficacy against Mpox, allowing viral transmission among humans. In this review, we discuss the current epidemiology of the ongoing Mpox outbreak and provide an update on the progress made in diagnosis, treatment, and development of vaccines for Mpox.

Immunological and Pathological Peculiarity of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Beta Variant.

Diverse severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants have emerged since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. We investigated the immunological and pathological peculiarity of the SARS-CoV-2 beta variant of concern (VoC) compared to the ancestral strain. Comparative analysis of phenotype and pathology revealed that the beta VoC induces slower disease progression and a prolonged presymptomatic period in the early stages of SARS-CoV-2 infection but ultimately causes sudden death in the late stages of infection in the K18-hACE2 mouse model. The beta VoC induced enhanced activation of CXCL1/2-CXCR2-NLRP3-IL-1ß signal cascade accelerating neutrophil recruitment and lung pathology in beta variant-infected mice, as evidenced by multiple analyses of SARS-CoV-2-induced inflammatory cytokines and transcriptomes. CCL2 was one of the most highly secreted cytokines in the early stages of infection. Its blockade reduced virus-induced weight loss and delayed mortality. Our study provides a better understanding of the variant characteristics and need for treatment. IMPORTANCE Since the outbreak of COVID-19, diverse SARS-CoV-2 variants have been identified. These variants have different infectivity and transmissibility from the ancestral strains. However, underlying molecular mechanisms have not yet been fully elucidated. In our study, the beta variant showed distinct pathological conditions and cytokine release kinetics from an ancestral strain in a mouse model. It was associated with higher neutrophil recruitment by increased levels of CXCL1/2, CXCR2, and interleukin 1ß (IL-1ß) at a later stage of viral infection. Our study will provide a better understanding of SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis.

Current Updates on COVID-19 Vaccines and Therapeutics: As of June 2022.

Since COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection, has become a global issue, many vaccines and therapeutic candidates have been developed or are being developed against the COVID-19 endemic and the next wave. However, it is difficult to overcome the spread and mutation rate of SARS-CoV-2 in the COVID-19 pandemic because development of vaccines and therapeutics involves considerable social cost and time, as well as research capabilities. Thus, assessing the development status of these agents is important for advancing efficient research strategies. In this review, we summarize the status of 141 vaccines and 345 therapeutic candidates under development worldwide, according to their development stage and characteristics. As of June 2022, 32 vaccines and 12 therapeutics have been approved for emergency use. Although the development of four of these therapeutics was terminated owing to their low efficacy against various variants of SARS-CoV-2, many new candidates that have completed phase 3 clinical trials have been awaiting phase 4 clinical trials or full approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). These efforts are expected to contribute to establishing an efficient research strategy to overcome the COVID-19 pandemic and facilitate its transition toward an endemic phase. Electronic Supplementary Material ESM: The online version of this article (doi: 10.1007/s12257-022-0188-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Comparison of Plaque Size, Thermal Stability, and Replication Rate among SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern.

SARS-CoV-2, like other RNA viruses, has a propensity for genetic evolution owing to the low fidelity of its viral polymerase. Several recent reports have described a series of novel SARS-CoV-2 variants. Some of these have been identified as variants of concern (VOCs), including alpha (B.1.1.7, Clade GRY), beta (B.1.351, Clade GH), gamma (P.1, Clade GR), and delta (B.1.617.2, Clade G). VOCs are likely to have some effect on transmissibility, antibody evasion, and changes in therapeutic or vaccine effectiveness. However, the physiological and virological understanding of these variants remains poor. We demonstrated that these four VOCs exhibited differences in plaque size, thermal stability at physiological temperature, and replication rates. The mean plaque size of beta was the largest, followed by those of gamma, delta, and alpha. Thermal stability, evaluated by measuring infectivity and half-life after prolonged incubation at physiological temperature, was correlated with plaque size in all variants except alpha. However, despite its relatively high thermal stability, alpha's small plaque size resulted in lower replication rates and fewer progeny viruses. Our findings may inform further virological studies of SARS-CoV-2 variant characteristics, VOCs, and variants of interest. These studies are important for the effective management of the COVID-19 pandemic.

An infectious cDNA clone of a growth attenuated Korean isolate of MERS coronavirus KNIH002 in clade B.

The MERS-CoV isolated during the 2015 nosocomial outbreak in Korea showed distinctive differences in mortality and transmission patterns compared to the prototype MERS-CoV EMC strain belonging to clade A. We established a BAC-based reverse genetics system for a Korean isolate of MERS-CoV KNIH002 in the clade B phylogenetically far from the EMC strain, and generated a recombinant MERS-CoV expressing red fluorescent protein. The virus rescued from the infectious clone and KNIH002 strain displayed growth attenuation compared to the EMC strain. Consecutive passages of the rescued virus rapidly generated various ORF5 variants, highlighting its genetic instability and calling for caution in the use of repeatedly passaged virus in pathogenesis studies and for evaluation of control measures against MERS-CoV. The infectious clone for the KNIH002 in contemporary epidemic clade B would be useful for better understanding of a functional link between molecular evolution and pathophysiology of MERS-CoV by comparative studies with EMC strain.

Antiviral efficacy of orally delivered neoagarohexaose, a nonconventional TLR4 agonist, against norovirus infection in mice.

The neoagarohexaose (NA6) is an oligosaccharide that is derived from agarose, the major component of red algae cell walls, by enzymatic hydrolysis. Here we show that NA6 is a noncanonical Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist with antiviral activity against norovirus. Its TLR4 activation was dependent on myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) and cluster of differentiation 14 (CD14), leading to interferon-ß (IFN-ß) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) production. This effect was abolished by TLR4 knockdown or knockout in murine macrophages. NA6 inhibited murine norovirus (MNV) replication with an EC50 of 1.5 µM in RAW264.7 cells. It also lowered viral RNA titer in a human hepatocellular carcinoma Huh7-derived cell line harboring a human norovirus subgenomic replicon. The antiviral activity of NA6 was mainly attributed to IFN-ß produced through the TLR4-TRIF signaling pathway. NA6-induced TNF-α, which had little effect on norovirus replication per se, primed macrophages to mount greater antiviral innate immune responses when IFN signaling was activated. NA6 boosted the induction of IFN-ß in MNV-infected RAW264.7 cells and upregulated IFN-regulatory factor-1, an IFN-stimulated gene. NA6 induced IFN-ß expression in the distal ileum with Peyer's patches and oral administration of NA6 reduced MNV loads through activation of TLR4 signaling, highlighting its potential contribution to protective antiviral innate immunity against norovirus.

A Serious Game-Derived Index for Detecting Children With Heterogeneous Developmental Disabilities: Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Developmental disabilities are a set of heterogeneous delays or difficulties in one or more areas of neuropsychological development. Considering that childhood is an essential stage of brain development and developmental delays lead to personal or social burdens, the early detection of childhood developmental disabilities is important. However, early screening for developmental disabilities has been a challenge because of the fear of positive results, expensive tests, differences in diagnosis depending on examiners' abilities, and difficulty in diagnosis arising from the need for long-term follow-up observation. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to assess the feasibility of using a serious game-derived index to identify heterogeneous developmental disabilities. This study also examines the correlation between the game-derived index and existing neuropsychological test results. METHODS: The randomized controlled trial involved 48 children with either normal development or developmental disabilities. In this clinical trial, we used 19 features (6 from the Korean-Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, 8 from the Psychoeducational Profile Revised, 2 from the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition, and 3 from the Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Inventory) from neuropsychological tests and 9 (7 game scores, path accuracy, and completion rate) from the serious game, DoBrain. The following analysis was conducted based on participants' baseline information and neuropsychological test and game-derived index data for one week: (1) we compared the baseline information between the normal development and developmental disabilities groups; (2) then we measured the correlation between the game-derived index and the neuropsychological test scores for each group; and (3) we built a classifier based on the game-derived index with a Gaussian process method and then compared the area under the curve (AUC) with a model based on neuropsychological test results. RESULTS: A total of 16 children (normal development=9; developmental disabilities=7) were analyzed after selection. Their developmental abilities were assessed before they started to play the serious games, and statistically significant differences were found in both groups. Specifically, the normal development group was more developed than the developmental disabilities group in terms of social function, gross motor function, full-scale IQ, and visual motor imitation, in that order. Similarly, the normal development group obtained a higher score on the game-derived index than the developmental disabilities group. In the correlation analysis between the game-derived index and the neuropsychological tests, the normal development group showed greater correlation with more variables than the developmental disabilities group. The game-derived index-based model had an AUC=0.9, a similar detection value as the neuropsychological test-based model's AUC=0.86. CONCLUSIONS: A game-derived index based on serious games can detect children with heterogenous developmental disabilities. This suggests that serious games can be used as a potential screening tool for developmental disabilities. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical Research Information Service KCT0003247; https://cris.nih.go.kr/cris/en/search/search_result_st01 .jsp?seq=12365.

Regulation of La/SSB-dependent viral gene expression by pre-tRNA 3' trailer-derived tRNA fragments.

tRNA-derived RNA fragments (tRFs) have emerged as a new class of functional RNAs implicated in cancer, metabolic and neurological disorders, and viral infection. Yet our understanding of their biogenesis and functions remains limited. In the present study, through analysis of small RNA profile we have identified a distinct set of tRFs derived from pre-tRNA 3' trailers in the hepatocellular carcinoma cell line Huh7. Among those tRFs, tRF_U3_1, which is a 19-nucleotide-long chr10.tRNA2-Ser(TGA)-derived trailer, was expressed most abundantly in both Huh7 and cancerous liver tissues, being present primarily in the cytoplasm. We show that genetic loss of tRF_U3_1 does not affect cell growth and it is not involved in Ago2-mediated gene silencing. Using La/SSB knockout Huh7 cell lines, we demonstrate that this nuclear-cytoplasmic shuttling protein directly binds to the 3' U-tail of tRF_U3_1 and other abundantly expressed trailers and plays a critical role in their stable cytoplasmic accumulation. The pre-tRNA trailer-derived tRFs capable of sequestering the limiting amounts of La/SSB in the cytoplasm rendered cells resistant to various RNA viruses, which usurp La/SSB with RNA chaperone activity for their gene expression. Collectively, our results establish the trailer-derived tRF-La/SSB interface, regulating viral gene expression.

Links between accelerated replicative cellular senescence and down-regulation of SPHK1 transcription.

We have identified a mechanism to diminish the proliferative capacity of cells during cell expansion using human adiposederived stromal cells (hAD-SCs) as a model of replicative senescence. hAD-SCs of high-passage numbers exhibited a reduced proliferative capacity with accelerated cellular senescence. Levels of key bioactive sphingolipids were significantly increased in these senescent hAD-SCs. Notably, the transcription of sphingosine kinase 1 (SPHK1) was down-regulated in hAD-SCs at high-passage numbers. SPHK1 knockdown as well as inhibition of its enzymatic activity impeded the proliferation of hAD-SCs, with concomitant induction of cellular senescence and accumulation of sphingolipids, as seen in high-passage cells. SPHK1 knockdown-accelerated cellular senescence was attenuated by co-treatment with sphingosine-1-phosphate and an inhibitor of ceramide synthesis, fumonisin B1, but not by treatment with either one alone. Together, these results suggest that transcriptional down-regulation of SPHK1 is a critical inducer of altered sphingolipid profiles and enhances replicative senescence during multiple rounds of cell division. [BMB Reports 2019; 52(3): 220-225].

Endothelial dysfunction induces atherosclerosis: increased aggrecan expression promotes apoptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Endothelial dysfunction-induced lipid retention is an early feature of atherosclerotic lesion formation. Apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is one of the major modulating factors of atherogenesis, which accelerates atherosclerosis progression by causing plaque destabilization and rupture. However, the mechanism underlying VSMC apoptosis mediated by endothelial dysfunction in relation to atherosclerosis remains elusive. In this study, we reveal differential expression of several genes related to lipid retention and apoptosis, in conjunction with atherosclerosis, by utilizing a genetic mouse model of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) deficiency manifesting endothelial dysfunction. Moreover, eNOS deficiency led to the enhanced susceptibility against pro-apoptotic insult in VSMCs. In particular, the expression of aggrecan, a major proteoglycan, was elevated in aortic tissue of eNOS deficient mice compared to wild type mice, and administration of aggrecan induced apoptosis in VSMCs. This suggests that eNOS deficiency may elevate aggrecan expression, which promotes apoptosis in VSMC, thereby contributing to atherosclerosis progression. These results may facilitate the development of novel approaches for improving the diagnosis or treatment of atherosclerosis. [BMB Reports 2019; 52(2): 145-150].

HA1077 displays synergistic activity with daclatasvir against hepatitis C virus and suppresses the emergence of NS5A resistance-associated substitutions in mice.

The kinase C-related kinase 2 (PRK2), which phosphorylates hepatitis C virus (HCV) RNA polymerase, is a proviral factor enhancing HCV replication. Here, we report on the in vivo anti-HCV efficacy of HA1077, which inhibits viral genome replication by targeting PRK2 and displays viral entry inhibitory activity by targeting Rho-associated kinase. HA1077 showed synergistic antiviral activity selectively with nonstructural protein 5 A (NS5A) inhibitors including daclatasvir (DCV). HA1077 oral administration substantially reduced serum viral loads in mice bearing HCV genotype 2a-replicating Huh7 xenografts. When administered with DCV, HA1077 potentiated the antiviral efficacy of DCV and suppressed the generation of DCV resistance-associated variants (RAVs). By deep-sequencing analysis, we uncovered an unprecedented DCV-induced polymorphism at the poly-proline motif (PxxPxxP) of NS5A. Coadministration of HA1077 reduced such a polymorphism. Overall, our results demonstrate the potential therapeutic benefit of combination therapy with HA1077 plus DCV for HCV patients carrying emerging or pre-existing RAVs toward NS5A inhibitors.

Prophylactic efficacy of orally administered Bacillus poly-γ-glutamic acid, a non-LPS TLR4 ligand, against norovirus infection in mice.

Poly-gamma-glutamic acid (γ-PGA), an extracellular biopolymer produced by Bacillus sp., is a non-canonical toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) agonist. Here we show its antiviral efficacy against noroviruses. γ-PGA with a molecular mass of 2,000-kDa limited murine norovirus (MNV) replication in the macrophage cell line RAW264.7 by inducing interferon (IFN)-ß and conferred resistance to viral infection-induced cell death. Additionally, γ-PGA interfered with viral entry into cells. The potent antiviral state mounted by γ-PGA was not attributed to the upregulation of TLR4 or TLR3, a sensor known to recognize norovirus RNA. γ-PGA sensing by TLR4 required the two TLR4-associated accessory factors MD2 and CD14. In ex vivo cultures of mouse ileum, γ-PGA selectively increased the expression of IFN-ß in villi. In contrast, IFN-ß induction was negligible in the ileal Peyer's patches (PPs) where its expression was primarily induced by the replication of MNV. Oral administration of γ-PGA, which increased serum IFN-ß levels without inducing proinflammatory cytokines, reduced MNV loads in the ileum with PPs and mesenteric lymph nodes in mice. Our results disclose a γ-PGA-mediated non-conventional TLR4 signaling in the ileum, highlighting the potential use of γ-PGA as a prophylactic antiviral agent against noroviruses.

Vibrio vulnificus quorum-sensing molecule cyclo(Phe-Pro) inhibits RIG-I-mediated antiviral innate immunity.

The recognition of pathogen-derived ligands by pattern recognition receptors activates the innate immune response, but the potential interaction of quorum-sensing (QS) signaling molecules with host anti-viral defenses remains largely unknown. Here we show that the Vibrio vulnificus QS molecule cyclo(Phe-Pro) (cFP) inhibits interferon (IFN)-ß production by interfering with retinoic-acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I) activation. Binding of cFP to the RIG-I 2CARD domain induces a conformational change in RIG-I, preventing the TRIM25-mediated ubiquitination to abrogate IFN production. cFP enhances susceptibility to hepatitis C virus (HCV), as well as Sendai and influenza viruses, each known to be sensed by RIG-I but did not affect the melanoma-differentiation-associated gene 5 (MDA5)-recognition of norovirus. Our results reveal an inter-kingdom network between bacteria, viruses and host that dysregulates host innate responses via a microbial quorum-sensing molecule modulating the response to viral infection.

Inactivation efficiency and mechanism of UV-TiO2 photocatalysis against murine norovirus using a solidified agar matrix.

Human norovirus (HuNoV) is the primary cause of viral gastroenteritis worldwide. Fresh blueberries are among high risk foods associated with norovirus related outbreaks. Therefore, it is important to assess intervention strategies to reduce the risk of foodborne illness. The disinfection efficiency of decontamination methods is difficult to evaluate for fruits and vegetables due to an inconsistent degree of contamination and irregular surface characteristics. The inactivation efficiency and mechanism of murine norovirus 1 (MNV-1, a surrogate for HuNoV) was studied on an experimentally prepared solidified agar matrix (SAM) to simulate blueberries using different wavelengths (A, B, C) of UV light both with and without TiO2 photocatalysis (TP). MNV-1 was inoculated on exterior and interior of SAM and inactivation efficiencies of different treatments were investigated using a number of assays. Initial inoculum levels of MNV-1 on the SAM surface and interior were 5.2logPFU/mL. UVC with TiO2 (UVC-TP) achieved the highest level of viral reduction for both externally inoculated and internalized MNV-1. Externally inoculated MNV-1 was reduced to non-detectable levels after UVC-TP treatment for 5min while there was still a 0.9 log viral titer after UVC alone. For internalized MNV-1, 3.2 log and 2.7 log reductions were obtained with UVC-TP and UVC alone treatments for 10min, respectively. The Weibull model was applied to describe the inactivation behavior of MNV-1, and the model showed a good fit to the data. An excellent correlation between the steady-state concentration of OH radicals ([OH]ss) and viral inactivation was quantified using a para-chlorobenzoic acid (pCBA) probe compound, suggesting that OH radicals produced in the UV-TP reaction were the major species for MNV-1 inactivation. Transmission electron microscopy images showed that the structure of viral particles was completely disrupted with UVC-TP and UVC alone. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that the major capsid protein VP1 was degraded after UVC-TP and UVC alone. Real-time RT-qPCR analysis showed that UVC-TP and UVC alone caused a reduction in the level of viral genomic RNA. Propidium monoazide (PMA) pretreatment RT-qPCR analysis showed that UVC-TP caused damage to the viral capsid protein in addition to viral genomic RNA. UVC both with and without TiO2 was more effective for MNV-1 inactivation than UVB and UVA. Thus, UVC-TP disinfection aimed to reduce levels of food-borne viruses can inactivate viruses present on the surface and internalized in the interior of blueberries.

Arc discharge-mediated disassembly of viral particles in water.

In this study, we investigated the inactivation effects on murine norovirus (MNV-1) with/without purification in water using a submerged plasma reactor of arc discharge (underwater arc), which produced a shockwave, UV light, reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species. Underwater arc treatments of 3 and 6 Hz at 12 kV resulted in 2.6- and 4.2-log reductions in the virus titer of non-purified MNV-1 after 1 min of treatment, respectively. The reduction of purified MNV-1 was higher than that of non-purified MNV-1 after underwater arc treatment for all applied conditions (12 or 15 kV and 3 or 6 Hz). One of the viral capsid proteins (VP1) was not detectable after underwater arc treatment, when its integrity was assessed by western blot analysis. Transmission electron microscopy analysis also revealed that MNV-1 particles were completely dissembled by the treatment. This study demonstrates that underwater arc treatment, which was capable of disintegrating the MNV-1 virion structure and the viral capsid protein, can be an effective disinfection process for the inactivation of water-borne noroviruses.

Inhibition of hepatitis C virus in mouse models by lipidoid nanoparticle-mediated systemic delivery of siRNA against PRK2.

Host-targeting antivirals have an advantage over direct-acting antivirals in that they have a high genetic barrier to resistance. Here, we describe in vivo anti-hepatitis C virus (HCV) efficacy of a potent siRNA targeting the protein kinase C-related kinase 2 (PRK2), which phosphorylates HCV NS5B RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and promotes HCV replication. PRK2-silencing reduced the phosphorylated NS5B level and resulted in inhibition of NS5B RdRp activity to decrease HCV genome abundance. Systemic administration of lipidoid nanoparticle-formulated PRK2 siRNA (once every three days for a total of three injections at a dose of 3mgkg(-1)) resulted in a 3.72 and 1.96 log10 reduction in serum HCV RNA titer, in mouse subcutaneous and orthotopic xenograft models for HCV replication, respectively. Our results verify the essential role of PRK2 in HCV replication and offer a host-targeting anti-HCV siRNA therapy that might be beneficial for non-responders to current treatment regimens.

Inhibition of Hepatitis C Virus in Mice by a Small Interfering RNA Targeting a Highly Conserved Sequence in Viral IRES Pseudoknot.

The hepatitis C virus (HCV) internal ribosome entry site (IRES) that directs cap-independent viral translation is a primary target for small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based HCV antiviral therapy. However, identification of potent siRNAs against HCV IRES by bioinformatics-based siRNA design is a challenging task given the complexity of HCV IRES secondary and tertiary structures and association with multiple proteins, which can also dynamically change the structure of this cis-acting RNA element. In this work, we utilized siRNA tiling approach whereby siRNAs were tiled with overlapping sequences that were shifted by one or two nucleotides over the HCV IRES stem-loop structures III and IV spanning nucleotides (nts) 277-343. Based on their antiviral activity, we mapped a druggable region (nts 313-343) where the targets of potent siRNAs were enriched. siIE22, which showed the greatest anti-HCV potency, targeted a highly conserved sequence across diverse HCV genotypes, locating within the IRES subdomain IIIf involved in pseudoknot formation. Stepwise target shifting toward the 5' or 3' direction by 1 or 2 nucleotides reduced the antiviral potency of siIE22, demonstrating the importance of siRNA accessibility to this highly structured and sequence-conserved region of HCV IRES for RNA interference. Nanoparticle-mediated systemic delivery of the stability-improved siIE22 derivative gs_PS1 siIE22, which contains a single phosphorothioate linkage on the guide strand, reduced the serum HCV genome titer by more than 4 log10 in a xenograft mouse model for HCV replication without generation of resistant variants. Our results provide a strategy for identifying potent siRNA species against a highly structured RNA target and offer a potential pan-HCV genotypic siRNA therapy that might be beneficial for patients resistant to current treatment regimens.