A Novel Pseudoalteromonas xiamenensis Marine Isolate as a Potential Probiotic: Anti-Inflammatory and Innate Immune Modulatory Effects against Thermal and Pathogenic Stresses.

A marine bacterial strain was isolated from seawater and characterized for it beneficial probiotic effects using zebrafish as a model system. The strain was identified by morphological, physiological, biochemical, and phylogenetic analyses. The strain was most closely related to Pseudoalteromonas xiamenensis Y2, with 99.66% similarity; thus, we named it Pseudoalteromonas xiamenensis S1131. Improvement of host disease tolerance for the P. xiamenensis isolate was adapted in a zebrafish model using Edwardsiella piscicida challenge. The larvae were pre-exposed to P. xiamenensis prior to E. piscicida challenge, resulting in a 73.3% survival rate compared to a 46.6% survival for the control. The treated larvae tolerated elevated temperatures at 38 °C, with 85% survival, compared to 60% survival for the control. Assessment of immunomodulatory responses at the mRNA level demonstrated the suppression of pro-inflammatory markers tnfα and il6, and upregulation of heat shock protein hsp90 and mucin genes. The same effect was corroborated by immunoblot analysis, revealing significant inhibition of Tnfα and an enhanced expression of the Hsp90 protein. The antibacterial activity of P. xiamenensis may be related to mucin overexpression, which can suppress bacterial biofilm formation and enhance macrophage uptake. This phenomenon was evaluated using nonstimulated macrophage RAW264.7 cells. Further studies may be warranted to elucidate a complete profile of the probiotic effects, to expand the potential applications of the present P. xiamenensis isolate.

Characterization of glycoside hydrolase family 11 xylanase from Streptomyces sp. strain J103; its synergetic effect with acetyl xylan esterase and enhancement of enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass.

BACKGROUND: Xylanase-containing enzyme cocktails are used on an industrial scale to convert xylan into value-added products, as they hydrolyse the ß-1,4-glycosidic linkages between xylopyranosyl residues. In the present study, we focused on xynS1, the glycoside hydrolase (GH) 11 xylanase gene derived from the Streptomyces sp. strain J103, which can mediate XynS1 protein synthesis and lignocellulosic material hydrolysis. RESULTS: xynS1 has an open reading frame with 693 base pairs that encodes a protein with 230 amino acids. The predicted molecular weight and isoelectric point of the protein were 24.47 kDa and 7.92, respectively. The gene was cloned into the pET-11a expression vector and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). Recombinant XynS1 (rXynS1) was purified via His-tag affinity column chromatography. rXynS1 exhibited optimal activity at a pH of 5.0 and temperature of 55 °C. Thermal stability was in the temperature range of 50-55 °C. The estimated Km and Vmax values were 51.4 mg/mL and 898.2 U/mg, respectively. One millimolar of Mn2+ and Na+ ions stimulated the activity of rXynS1 by up to 209% and 122.4%, respectively, and 1 mM Co2+ and Ni2+ acted as inhibitors of the enzyme. The mixture of rXynS1, originates from Streptomyces sp. strain J103 and acetyl xylan esterase (AXE), originating from the marine bacterium Ochrovirga pacifica, enhanced the xylan degradation by 2.27-fold, compared to the activity of rXynS1 alone when Mn2+ was used in the reaction mixture; this reflected the ability of both enzymes to hydrolyse the xylan structure. The use of an enzyme cocktail of rXynS1, AXE, and commercial cellulase (Celluclast® 1.5 L) for the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass was more effective than that of commercial cellulase alone, thereby increasing the relative activity 2.3 fold. CONCLUSION: The supplementation of rXynS1 with AXE enhanced the xylan degradation process via the de-esterification of acetyl groups in the xylan structure. Synergetic action of rXynS1 with commercial cellulase improved the hydrolysis of pre-treated lignocellulosic biomass; thus, rXynS1 could potentially be used in several industrial applications.

Optimising the DPPH Assay for Cell-Free Marine Microorganism Supernatants.

Antioxidants prevent ageing and are usually quantified and screened using the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. However, this assay cannot be used for salt-containing samples, such as the cell-free supernatants of marine microorganisms that are aggregated under these conditions. Herein, the DPPH solvent (methanol or ethanol) and its water content were optimized to enable the analysis of salt-containing samples, aggregation was observed for alcohol contents of >70%. The water content of methanol influenced the activities of standard antioxidants but did not significantly affect that of the samples. Based on solution stability considerations, 70% aqueous methanol was chosen as the optimal DPPH solvent. The developed method was successfully applied to the cell-free supernatants of marine bacteria (Pseudoalteromonas rubra and Pseudoalteromonas xiamenensis), revealing their high antioxidant activities. Furthermore, it was concluded that this method would be useful for the screening of marine microorganism-derived antioxidants, which also has numerous potential applications, such as salt-fermented foods.

Marine cyanobacterium Spirulina maxima as an alternate to the animal cell culture medium supplement.

Serum is a stable medium supplement for in vitro cell culture. Live cells are used in stem cell research, drug toxicity and safety testing, disease diagnosis and prevention, and development of antibiotics, drugs, and vaccines. However, use of serum in culture involves concerns such as an ethical debate regarding the collection process, lack of standardized ingredients, and high cost. Herein, therefore, we evaluated the possibility of using edible cyanobacterium (Spirulina maxima), which is a nutrient-rich, sustainable, and ethically acceptable source, as a novel substitute for fetal bovine serum (FBS). H460 cells were cultured to the 10th generation by adding a mixture of spirulina animal cell culture solution (SACCS) and FBS to the culture medium. Cell morphology and viability, cell cycle, apoptosis, proteomes, and transcriptomes were assessed. We observed that SACCS had better growth-promoting capabilities than FBS. Cell proliferation was promoted even when FBS was replaced by 50-70% SACCS; there was no significant difference in cell shape or viability. There were only slight differences in the cell cycle, apoptosis, proteomes, and transcriptomes of the cells grown in presence of SACCS. Therefore, SACCS has the potential to be an effective, low-cost, and eco-friendly alternative to FBS in in vitro culture.

The First Report to Evaluate Safety of Cyanobacterium Leptolyngbya sp. KIOST-1 for Use as a Food Ingredient: Oral Acute Toxicity and Genotoxicity Study.

Leptolyngbya sp. KIOST-1 (LK1) is a newly isolated cyanobacterium that shows no obvious cytotoxicity and contains high protein content for both human and animal diets. However, only limited information is available on its toxic effects. The purpose of this study was to validate the safety of LK1 powder. Following Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines, a single-dose oral toxicity test in Sprague Dawley rats was performed. Genotoxicity was assessed using a bacterial reverse mutation test with Salmonella typhimurium (strains TA98, TA100, TA1535, and TA1537) and Escherichia coli WP2 uvrA, an in vitro mammalian chromosome aberration test using Chinese hamster lung cells, and an in vivo mammalian erythrocyte micronucleus test using Hsd:ICR (CD-1) SPF mouse bone marrow. After LK1 administration (2,500 mg/kg), there were no LK1-related body weight changes or necropsy findings. The reverse mutation test showed no increased reverse mutation upon exposure to 5,000 µg/plate of the LK1 powder, the maximum tested amount. The chromosome aberration test and micronucleus assay demonstrated no chromosomal abnormalities and genotoxicity, respectively, in the presence of the LK1 powder. The absence of physiological findings and genetic abnormalities suggests that LK1 powder is appropriate as a candidate biomass to be used as a safe food ingredient.

A Novel Agarase, Gaa16B, Isolated from the Marine Bacterium Gilvimarinus agarilyticus JEA5, and the Moisturizing Effect of Its Partial Hydrolysis Products.

We recently identified a ß-agarase, Gaa16B, in the marine bacterium Gilvimarinus agarilyticus JEA5. Gaa16B, belonging to the glycoside hydrolase 16 family of ß-agarases, shows less than 70.9% amino acid similarity with previously characterized agarases. Recombinant Gaa16B lacking the carbohydrate-binding region (rGaa16Bc) was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified. Activity assays revealed the optimal temperature and pH of rGaa16Bc to be 55 ∘C and pH 6-7, respectively, and the protein was highly stable at 55 ∘C for 90 min. Additionally, rGaa16Bc activity was strongly enhanced (2.3-fold) in the presence of 2.5 mM MnCl2. The Km and Vmax of rGaa16Bc for agarose were 6.4 mg/mL and 953 U/mg, respectively. Thin-layer chromatography analysis revealed that rGaa16Bc can hydrolyze agarose into neoagarotetraose and neoagarobiose. Partial hydrolysis products (PHPs) of rGaa16Bc had an average molecular weight of 88-102 kDa and exhibited > 60% hyaluronidase inhibition activity at a concentration of 1 mg/mL, whereas the completely hydrolyzed product (CHP) showed no hyaluronidase at the same concentration. The biochemical properties of Gaa16B suggest that it could be useful for producing functional neoagaro-oligosaccharides. Additionally, the PHP of rGaa16Bc may be useful in promoting its utilization, which is limited due to the gel strength of agar.

Characterization of an acetyl xylan esterase from the marine bacterium Ochrovirga pacifica and its synergism with xylanase on beechwood xylan.

BACKGROUND: Acetyl xylan esterase plays an important role in the complete enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic materials. It hydrolyzes the ester linkages of acetic acid in xylan and supports and enhances the activity of xylanase. This study was conducted to identify and overexpress the acetyl xylan esterase (AXE) gene revealed by the genomic sequencing of the marine bacterium Ochrovirga pacifica. RESULTS: The AXE gene has an 864-bp open reading frame that encodes 287 aa and consists of an AXE domain from aa 60 to 274. Gene was cloned to pET-16b vector and expressed the recombinant AXE (rAXE) in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). The predicted molecular mass was 31.75 kDa. The maximum specific activity (40.08 U/mg) was recorded at the optimal temperature and pH which were 50 °C and pH 8.0, respectively. The thermal stability assay showed that AXE maintains its residual activity almost constantly throughout and after incubation at 45 °C for 120 min. The synergism of AXE with xylanase on beechwood xylan, increased the relative activity 1.41-fold. CONCLUSION: Resulted higher relative activity of rAXE with commercially available xylanase on beechwood xylan showed its potential for the use of rAXE in industrial purposes as a de-esterification enzyme to hydrolyze xylan and hemicellulose-like complex substrates.

A Novel Glycosyl Hydrolase Family 16 ß-Agarase from the Agar-Utilizing Marine Bacterium Gilvimarinus agarilyticus JEA5: the First Molecular and Biochemical Characterization of Agarase in Genus Gilvimarinus.

The agarase gene gaa16a was identified from a draft genome sequence of Gilvimarinus agarilyticus JEA5, an agar-utilizing marine bacterium. Recently, three agarase-producing bacteria, G. chinensis, G. polysaccharolyticus, and G. agarilyticus, in the genus Gilvimarinus were reported. However, there have been no reports of the molecular characteristics and biochemical properties of these agarases. In this study, we analyzed the molecular characteristics and biochemical properties of agarases in Gilvimarinus. Gaa16A comprised a 1,323-bp open reading frame encoding 441 amino acids. The predicted molecular mass and isoelectric point were 49 kDa and 4.9, respectively. The amino acid sequence of Gaa16A showed features typical of glycosyl hydrolase family 16 (GH16) ß-agarases, including a GH16 domain, carbohydrate-binding region (RICIN domain), and signal peptide. Recombinant Gaa16A (excluding the signal peptide and carbohydrate-binding region, rGaa16A) was expressed as a fused protein with maltose-binding protein at its N-terminus in Escherichia coli. rGaa16A had maximum activity at 55°C and pH 7.0 and 103 U/mg of specific activity in the presence of 2.5 mM CaCl2. The enzyme hydrolyzed agarose to yield neoagarotetraose as the main product. This enzyme may be useful for industrial production of functional neoagaro-oligosaccharides.

Corallibacterium pacifica gen. nov., sp. nov., a Novel Bacterium of the Family Vibrionaceae Isolated from Hard Coral.

A gram-negative, rod-shaped, motile, oxidase- and catalase-positive, non-pigmented marine bacterium, designated strain OS-11M-2T, was isolated from a coral sample collected from the Osakura coastal area in Micronesia. Phylogenetic analysis based on 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene sequences indicated that strain OS-11M-2T is a member of the family Vibrionaceae, its closest neighbors being Photobacterium damselae subsp. piscicida NCIMB 2058T (94.9%), Photobacterium damselae subsp. damselae CIP 102761T (94.75%), Grimontia marina IMCC5001T (94.5%), Enterovibrio coralii LMG 22228T (94.5%), and Grimontia celer 96-237T (94.5%). The major cellular fatty acids were summed feature 3 (21.4%), summed feature 8 (18.5%), iso-C16:0 (13.8%), and C16:0 (11.9%). The major respiratory quinone of the bacterium was ubiquinone-8 (Q-8) and its major polar lipid phosphatidylethanolamine. Six amino lipids, two phospholipids, and one polar lipid, all unidentified, were detected. The DNA G+C content was 49.7 mol%. The 16S rRNA gene sequence of OS-11M-2T was registered in GenBank under accession number MF359550. On the basis of phenotypic, genotypic, and phylogenetic analyses, strain OS-11M-2T represents a novel genus of the family Vibrionaceae, for which we propose the name Corallibacterium pacifica gen. nov., sp. nov., with the type strain of the type species being OS-11M-2T (= KCCM 43265T). The digital protologue database (DPD) taxon number for strain OS-11M-2T is GA00041.

A Rapid and Efficient Screening Method for Antibacterial Compound-Producing Bacteria.

Antibacterial compounds are widely used in the treatment of human and animal diseases. The overuse of antibiotics has led to a rapid rise in the prevalence of drug-resistant bacteria, making the development of new antibacterial compounds essential. This study focused on developing a fast and easy method for identifying marine bacteria that produce antibiotic compounds. Eight randomly selected marine target bacterial species (Agrococcus terreus, Bacillus algicola, Mesoflavibacter zeaxanthinifaciens, Pseudoalteromonas flavipulchra, P. peptidolytica, P. piscicida, P. rubra, and Zunongwangia atlantica) were tested for production of antibacterial compounds against four strains of test bacteria (B. cereus, B. subtilis, Halomonas smyrnensis, and Vibrio alginolyticus). Colony picking was used as the primary screening method. Clear zones were observed around colonies of P. flavipulchra, P. peptidolytica, P. piscicida, and P. rubra tested against B. cereus, B. subtilis, and H. smyrnensis. The efficiency of colony scraping and broth culture methods for antimicrobial compound extraction was also compared using a disk diffusion assay. P. peptidolytica, P. piscicida, and P. rubra showed antagonistic activity against H. smyrnensis, B. cereus, and B. subtilis, respectively, only in the colony scraping method. Our results show that colony picking and colony scraping are effective, quick, and easy methods of screening for antibacterial compound-producing bacteria.

A Newly Identified Glutaminase-Free ʟ-Asparaginase (ʟ-ASPG86) from the Marine Bacterium Mesoflavibacter zeaxanthinifaciens.

ʟ-Asparaginase (E.C. 3.5.1.1) is an enzyme involved in asparagine hydrolysis and has the potential to effect leukemic cells and various other cancer cells. We identified the Lasparaginase gene (ʟ-ASPG86) in the genus Mesoflavibacter, which consists of a 1,035 bp open reading frame encoding 344 amino acids. Following phylogenetic analysis, the deduced amino acid sequence of ʟ-ASPG86 (ʟ-ASPG86) was grouped as a type I asparaginase with respective homologs in Escherichia coli and Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. The ʟ-ASPG86 gene was cloned into the pET-16b vector to express the respective protein in E. coli BL21 (DE3) cells. Recombinant ʟ-asparaginase (r-ʟ-ASPG86) showed optimum conditions at 37-40oC, pH 9. Moreover, r-ʟ-ASPG86 did not exhibit glutaminase activity. In the metal ions test, its enzymatic activity was highly improved upon addition of 5 mM manganese (3.97-fold) and magnesium (3.35-fold) compared with the untreated control. The specific activity of r-LASPG86 was 687.1 units/mg under optimum conditions (37°C, pH 9, and 5 mM MnSO4).

Draft genome of agar-degrading marine bacterium Gilvimarinus agarilyticus JEA5.

Gilvimarinus agarilyticus JEA5, which effectively degrades agar, was isolated from the seawater of Jeju Island, Republic of Korea. Here, we report the draft genome sequence of G. agarilyticus JEA5 with a total genome size of 4,179,438bp from 2 scaffolds (21 contigs) with 53.15% G+C content. Various polysaccharidases including 11 predicted agarases were observed from the draft genome of G. agarilyticus JEA5.

Two NF-κB inhibitor-alpha (IκBα) genes from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus): molecular characterization, genomic organization and mRNA expression analysis after immune stimulation.

IkBa is a member of IkB family, which sequesters NF-kB in an inactivate form in the cytoplasm and blocks the translocation of NF-kB to nucleus. The IkBa paralogs of rock bream (OfIkBa-A and OfIkBa-B) encoded IkBa proteins with typical features including, highly conserved IkB degradation motif, six ankyrin repeats and a PEST sequence. However, their amino acid identity and similarity were only 55.6 and 69.7%, respectively suggesting that these two genes could be the two different isoforms of IkBa. The number and size of the exons of OfIkBa-A and OfIkBa-B were conserved well with all the compared vertebrate species, although they have significantly different genomic sizes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that OfIkBa-A and OfIkBa-B proteins cluster with IkBa family members; however, they were grouped with different subclades in IkBa family. Tissue specific expression of OfIkBa mRNA was constitutively detected in all the tested tissues, and they showed the higher transcription level in heart, liver, gill and peripheral blood cells, respectively. The injection of flagellin stimulated the mRNA expression of OfIkBa paralogs in head kidney and intestine. Moreover, the OfIkBa mRNA expression in gill and liver was significantly upregulated by LPS, poly I:C and Edwardsiella tarda challenges. The transcription of OfIkBa was up-regulated in early-phase of injection and then rapidly restored. These results suggest that the OfIkBa paralogs might be involved in rapid immune responsive reactions in rock bream against bacterial and viral pathogens.

Effective microwell plate-based screening method for microbes producing cellulase and xylanase and its application.

Cellulase and xylanase are main hydrolysis enzymes for the degradation of cellulosic and hemicellulosic biomass, respectively. In this study, our aim was to develop and test the efficacy of a rapid, high-throughput method to screen hydrolytic-enzyme-producing microbes. To accomplish this, we modified the 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) method for microwell plate-based screening. Targeted microbial samples were initially cultured on agar plates with both cellulose and xylan as substrates. Then, isolated colonies were subcultured in broth media containing yeast extract and either cellulose or xylan. The supernatants of the culture broth were tested with our modified DNS screening method in a 96-microwell plate, with a 200 µl total reaction volume. In addition, the stability and reliability of glucose and xylose standards, which were used to determine the enzymatic activity, were studied at 100°C for different time intervals in a dry oven. It was concluded that the minimum incubation time required for stable color development of the standard solution is 20 min. With this technique, we successfully screened 21 and 31 cellulase- and xylanase-producing strains, respectively, in a single experimental trial. Among the identified strains, 19 showed both cellulose and xylan hydrolyzing activities. These microbes can be applied to bioethanol production from cellulosic and hemicellulosic biomass.

Oligo-microarray analysis and identification of stress-immune response genes from manila clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) exposure to heat and cold stresses.

Thermal stress regulates the complex system of gene expression and downstream biochemical and physiological responses in aquatic species. To identify genes involved in heat stress responses in manila clam (Ruditapes philippinarum), microarray analysis was conducted using clam transcriptome generated by pyrosequencing of cDNA library. Manila clams were exposed to heat (30 ± 1 °C) and cold (4 ± 1 °C) stresses and compared with control animals (18 ± 1 °C). Heat stressed animals have changed greater number of transcripts (8,306) than cold stress (7,573). Results of both heat and cold exposure has shown that over 2-fold up-regulated or down regulated (>2-or <2-fold) transcripts were higher at 24 h than at 6 h. It suggests that silent and constitutive express genes can activate at critical stage of thermal stress which could be between 6 and 24 h post stresses. We identified wide range of stress-immune response genes such as transcription factors, heat shock proteins, antioxidant and detoxification enzymes, inflammatory and apoptosis related genes, cell adhesion molecules, cytokines, and IFN regulatory proteins. Histological results revealed that non-specific cellular alterations such as lesions, hypertrophy, and necrosis in stressed gills could be due to decrease of gas exchange rate which may cause hypoxia.

Structural and functional characterization of a novel molluskan ortholog of TRAF and TNF receptor-associated protein from disk abalone (Haliotis discus discus).

Immune signaling cascades have an indispensable role in the host defense of almost all the organisms. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling is considered as a prominent signaling pathway in vertebrate as well as invertebrate species. Within the signaling cascade, TNF receptor-associated factor (TRAF) and TNF receptor-associated protein (TTRAP) has been shown to have a crucial role in the modulation of immune signaling in animals. Here, we attempted to characterize a novel molluskan ortholog of TTRAP (AbTTRAP) from disk abalone (Haliotis discus discus) and analyzed its expression levels under pathogenic stress. The complete coding sequence of AbTTRAP consisted of 1071 nucleotides, coding for a 357 amino acid peptide, with a predicted molecular mass of 40 kDa. According to our in-silico analysis, AbTTRAP resembled the typical TTRAP domain architecture, including a 5'-tyrosyl DNA phosphodiesterase domain. Moreover, phylogenetic analysis revealed its common ancestral invertebrate origin, where AbTTRAP was clustered with molluskan counterparts. Quantitative real time PCR showed universally distributed expression of AbTTRAP in selected tissues of abalone, from which more prominent expression was detected in hemocytes. Upon stimulation with two pathogen-derived mitogens, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C), transcript levels of AbTTRAP in hemocytes and gill tissues were differentially modulated with time. In addition, the recombinant protein of AbTTRAP exhibited prominent endonuclease activity against abalone genomic DNA, which was enhanced by the presence of Mg(2+) in the medium. Collectively, these results reinforce the existence of the TNF signaling cascade in mollusks like disk abalone, further implicating the putative regulatory behavior of TTRAP in invertebrate host pathology.

A mu class glutathione S-transferase from Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum (RpGSTµ): cloning, mRNA expression, and conjugation assays.

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are enzymes that catalyze xenobiotic metabolism in the phase II detoxification process. GSTs have a potential for use as indicators or biomarkers to assess the presence of organic and inorganic contaminants in aquatic environments. In this study, a full-length cDNA of a mu (µ) class GST (RpGSTµ) was identified from Manila clam (Ruditapes philippinarum) and biochemically characterized. The 1356 bp of the cDNA included an open reading frame of 651 bp encoding a polypeptide of 217 amino acid residues with a molecular mass of 25.04 kDa and an estimated pI of 6.34. Sequence analysis revealed that the RpGSTµ possessed several characteristic features of µ class GSTs, such as a thioredoxin-like N-terminal domain containing binding sites for glutathione (GSH), a C-terminal domain containing substrate binding sites, and a µ loop. The recombinant RpGSTµ (rRpGSTµ) protein exhibited GSH-conjugating catalytic activity towards several substrates, and significantly strong activity was detected against 4-nitrophenethyl bromide (5.77 ± 0.55) and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB, 3.19 ± 0.05). Kinetic analysis as a function of GSH and CDNB concentrations revealed relatively low Km values of 1.03 ± 0.46 mM and 0.56 ± 0.20 mM, respectively, thereby indicating a GSH-conjugation attributed with high rates. The optimum pH and temperature for the catalytic activity of the rRpGSTµ protein were 7.7 and 37°C, respectively. The effect of two inhibitors, Cibacron blue and hematin, on the activity of rRpGSTµ was evaluated and the IC50 values of 0.65 µM and 9 µM, respectively, were obtained. While RpGSTµ transcripts were highly expressed in gills and hemocytes, a significant elevation in mRNA levels was detected in these tissues after lipopolysaccharide (LPS), polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) and live bacterial (Vibrio tapetis) challenges. These findings collectively suggest that RpGSTµ functions as a potent detoxifier of xenobiotic toxicants present in the aquatic environment, and that its mRNA expression could be modulated by pathogenic stress signal(s).

Molecular cloning and characterization of SOCS-2 from Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum.

Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) family members are key regulators of immunological homeostasis. In this study, we have discovered the SOCS-2 member from Manila clam Ruditapes philippinarum and further analyzed its immune responses against lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C). Amino acid sequence of RpSOCS-2 consists of cytokine inducible SRC homology 2 (SH2) and SOCS box domains similar to vertebrate SOCS counterparts. It has the highest amino acid identity (41%) with Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas) SOCS-2 and showed close evolutional relationship with disk abalone (Haliotis discus discus) SOCS-2. Tissue specific expression results showed that RpSOCS-2 was constitutively expressed in all examined tissues with the highest level in gill tissue of un-challenged clams. RpSOCS-2 mRNA expression was up-regulated by LPS and poly I:C challenge in gills. Discovery of RpSOCS-2 homologue and expression analysis would support for understanding evolutional relationships and their role in innate immune responses in mollusks, respectively.

Genomic structure and immunological response of an STAT4 family member from rock bream (Oplegnathus fasciatus).

The Janus tyrosine kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway plays a critical role in host defense against viral and bacterial infections. STAT proteins are a group of transcription factors that translocate into the nucleus and are critical for the induction of many genes crucial for the allergic cascade and immune defense. In the present study, a member of the STAT4 family was identified from rock bream (RbSTAT4) at the genomic level, and its transcriptional regulation in response to different pathological stimuli under in vivo conditions was investigated. The genomic sequence of RbSTAT4 is approximately 15.6 kb in length, including a putative core promoter region and 24 exons interrupted by 23 introns. Bioinformatics analysis of RbSTAT4 identified the presence of typical and conserved features of the STAT4 family, including the STAT_int domain, STAT alpha domain, STAT bind domain, linker domain, SH2 domain, and transcriptional activation domain. According to the phylogenetic analysis, RbSTAT4 exhibited the closest evolutionary proximity with the STAT4 member from mandarin fish (Siniperca chuatsi). The RbSTAT4 transcript in healthy rock breams was detected to have ubiquitous expression in 11 different tissues examined, where liver and spleen tissues showed moderate expressions compared with the highest expression level detected in gill tissue. The time-course in vivo immune stimulation of rock bream with lipopolysaccharide, poly I:C, live Edwardsiella tarda, and rock bream iridovirus caused significant transcriptional regulation of the RbSTAT4 expression in gill, head kidney, and spleen tissues, suggesting that RbSTAT4 is involved in immune regulation mechanisms and/or signaling cascades, orchestrating against both bacterial and viral pathogens.

Algivirga pacifica gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel agar-degrading marine bacterium of the family Flammeovirgaceae isolated from Micronesia.

An aerobic, Gram-negative, coccoid to short rod-shaped and non-flagellated marine bacterial strain S354(T) was isolated from seawater of Micronesia. The strain was capable to degrade agar-forming slight depression into agar plate. Growth occurred at a temperature range of 12-44 °C, a pH range of 5-9, and a salinity range of 1-7 % (w/v) NaCl. Phylogenetic analyses based on 16S rRNA gene sequences suggested that S354(T) belongs to the family Flammeovirgaceae. The novel strain was most closely related to Limibacter armeniacum YM 11-185(T) with similarity of 92.5 %. The DNA G+C content was 43.8 mol%. The major fatty acids (>10 %) were iso-C15:0 and C16:1 ω5c. The predominant isoprenoid quinone was determined to be MK-7. Polar lipid profile of S354(T) consisted of phosphatidylethanolamine, unknown polar lipid, and unknown glycolipids. Based on the phenotypic, phylogenetic, biochemical, and physiological tests conducted in this study, S354(T) is proposed to represent a type strain of a novel genus and species. The 16S rRNA gene sequence of S354(T) is registered in GenBank under the accession number JQ639084. The type of strain Algivirga pacifica gen. nov., sp. nov. is S354(T) (=KCCM 90107(T)=JCM 18326(T)).