Effects of a very low birth weight newborn on family: literature review.

OBJECTIVE: The present study is a literature review to identify the effects of a very low birth weight newborn on family. This is an important instrument to clarify epidemiological issues and to suggest the directions for health policy efforts. METHOD: A three-step review was carried out using databases of journals indexed for Medline/Lilacs/ Scielo/Cochrane published between 1966 and 2005 using specific criteria of inclusion. The first step selected 12 articles from 2889 when searching for the keyword "very low birth weight infant"; the second step used the crossing of keyword "premature infant" with other pertinent keywords and terms resulting in 191 articles generating 7 more articles matching the criteria of inclusion. The third step was to analyze the references of articles in steps 1 and 2 (12 + 7 = 19), selecting 3 additional ones totalizing 22 selected articles. RESULT: Evidences in literature state that the families of very low birth weight newborns suffer potential negative effects on their operational dynamics, which is associated to the clinical seriousness, the age and the neuropsycomotor development of such children. It seems that the mother is the most affected member due to the situation imposed to the family, and the one who needs psychosocial support more frequently. CONCLUSION: The number of existing studies is still insufficient to clarify whether the effects on the family considering all their aspects are preponderantly positive or negative.

Evolution of the nutritional support pattern in pediatric intensive care.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate patterns of usage and monitoring of nutritional support in a Pediatric ICU of a teaching hospital and the role of an education program in nutritional support given throughout the resident physician training. DESIGN: In a historical cohort study, records from children who received nutritional support during the year 1992 were analyzed. Thereafter a continuing education program in Nutritional Support was conveyed to the residents. In a second phase of the study, the same parameters were reevaluated in children who received nutritional support throughout the year 1995. SETTING: Pediatric Intensive Care Unit of Department of Pediatrics, Escola Paulista de Medicina. PATIENTS: All the children who were given nutritional support during a period of five days or more. Based on this criteria 37 children were selected for the first phase of this study, and 35 for the second one. INTERVENTION: The education program included theoretical lectures about basic themes of nutritional support and journal article reading sessions. It was given to successive groups of residents on a weekly schedule. MEASUREMENTS: Daily records of fluid, protein, caloric and micronutrient supply, nutritional assessment and metabolic monitoring. RESULTS: In the first phase of the study, an exclusively parenteral route was utilized for 80.5%, and a digestive route 19.5% of the time period. Nutritional assessment was performed on 3 children; no patient had the nutritional goals set. The nitrogen to nonprotein calories ratio and the vitamin supply were inadequate, whilst the supply of trace elements was adequate except for zinc. Nutritional monitoring was performed on almost all patients but without uniformity. In the second phase, the exclusive parenteral route was used for 69.7% and the digestive route for 30.3% of the time period; no significant increase in the use of the digestive route was detected. The nonprotein calories to nitrogen ratio and micronutrient supply were adequate. The frequency of nutritional assessment increased, but deficiency in nutritional monitoring and infrequent enteral feeding were still detected. CONCLUSION: There were deficiencies in the implementation of nutritional support, which were partially corrected in the second phase of the study by the training of the residents. Reinforcement of the education program, which should be applied to the whole medical staff, and the organization of a multidisciplinary team in charge of coordinating the provision of nutritional support are suggested.

Metabolic assessment and enteral tube feeding usage in children with acute neurological diseases.

OBJECTIVE: To report on acquired experience of metabolic support for children with acute neurological diseases, emphasizing enteral tube feeding usage and metabolic assessment, and also to recommend policies aimed towards improving its implementation. DESIGN: Retrospective analysis. SETTING: Pediatric Intensive Care Unit of Hospital do Servidor Público Estadual de São Paulo. SUBJECTS: 44 patients consecutively admitted to the Pediatric ICU over a period of 3 years who were given nutrition and metabolic support for at least 72 hours. Head trauma, CNS infections and craniotomy post-operative period following tumor exeresis were the main diagnoses. MEASUREMENTS: Records of protein-energy intake, nutrient supply route, nitrogen balance and length of therapy. RESULTS: From a total of 527 days of therapy, single parenteral nutrition was utilized for 34.3% and single enteral tube feeding for 79.1% of that period. 61.4% of the children were fed exclusively via enteral tube feeding, 9.1% via parenteral and 39.5% by both routes. The enteral tube feeding was introduced upon admission and transpyloric placement was successful in 90% of the cases. Feeding was started 48 hours after ICU admission. The caloric goal was achieved on the 7th day after admission, and thereafter parenteral nutrition was interrupted. The maximum energy supply was 104.2 +/- 23.15 kcal/kg. The median length of therapy was 11 days (range 4-38). None of the patients on tube feeding developed GI tract bleeding, pneumonia or bronchoaspiration episodes and, of the 4 patients who were given exclusive TPN, 2 developed peptic ulcer. The initial urinary urea nitrogen was 7.11 g/m2 and at discharge 6.44 g/m2. The protein supply increased from 1.49 g/kg to 3.65 g/kg (p < 0.01). The nitrogen balance increased from--7.05 to 2.2 g (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Children with acute neurological diseases are hypercatabolic and have high urinary nitrogen losses. The initial negative nitrogen balance can be increased by more aggressive feeding regimes than the usual ones. Early tube feeding was well tolerated, which permits the conclusion that it is a safe and effective method for nutrition support. Recommendations of basic rules for metabolic support are made.

Suporte nutricional-metabólico em UTI pediátrica / Nutricional and metabolic support in the pediatric ICU

O suporte nutricional tem sido considerado um recurso terapêutico importante no tratamento de crianças hospitalizadas e gravemente doentes. Com o conhecimento do padrao de suporte nutricional utilizado pela unidade de internaçao hospitalar, pode-se detectar falhas e propor medidas para a sua otimizaçao. OBJETIVO. Avaliar o padrao terapêutico e de monitorizaçao do suporte metabólico em uma Unidade de Terapia Intensiva Pediátrica e propor medidas mínimas para melhorar a sua qualidade. PACIENTES E MÉTODO. Foram analisados os prontuários de 37 crianças admitidas na unidade durante um ano e que receberam suporte nutricional por um período igual ou superior a 15 dias. RESULTADOS. Em um período de 425 dias de suporte nutricional, a via parenteral exclusiva foi utilizada em 8O,5 por cento do tempo e a via digestiva (sonda nasoenteral ou oral), em 19,5 por cento do tempo. A avaliaçao nutricional prévia foi realizada em apenas três pacientes (8,1 por cento). Apenas 29,7 por cento das crianças tiveram suas necessidades energéticas satisfeitas, e este objetivo foi alcançado apenas nas que estavam recebendo nutriçao enteral. A relaçao nitrogênio/calorias nao-protéicas variou de 1:8O a 1:250. A oferta de oligoelementos por via parenteral foi adequada, exceçao feita ao zinco. A administraçao das vitaminas A, B2, E, C, pantenol e niacina esteve aquém da recomendada; biotina, vitamina B12, e folado nao foram administrados. A monitorizaçao nutricional incluiu o peso corpóreo e as dosagens de albumina sérica e de triglicérides, e foi realizada na maior parte dos pacientes, embora de modo eventual e nao uniforme. Conclusao. Houve falhas na implementaçao do suporte nutricional, a saber: inadequaçao da oferta protéica e de micronutrientes, monitoraçao nutricional e metabólica deficiente e uso pouco freqüente de nutriçao por via enteral. Sugere-se uma rotina mínima para a monitorizaçao de pacientes em nutriçao parenteral e enteral e a organizaçao de uma equipe multidisciplinar encarregada da coordenaçao do suporte nutricional.

[Nutritional and metabolic support in the pediatric ICU]. / Suporte nutricional-metabólico em UTI pediátrica.

UNLABELLED: Nutritional support has been considered an important part of the treatment of critically ill patients. The information about the current clinical pattern of nutrition support in hospitals may provide a basis for future modification and improvement of its prescription and use. OBJECTIVES: 1) To evaluate patterns of usage and monitoring of nutritional support in critically ill children; 2) To recommend policies aiming at the improvement of the nutritional support quality. PATIENTS AND METHOD: Records of 37 patients receiving nutritional support throughout one year were reviewed. RESULTS: From a total of 425 days of therapy, the single parenteral route was utilized in 80.50% the digestive route (tube feeding or oral route) in 19.5% of this time. A previous nutritional assessment was performed in 3 children; no patient had the nutrition goals set. The nitrogen to nonprotein calories ratio ranged between 1:80 and 1:250. Only 29.7% of the patients had their estimated caloric needs supplied and this goal was achieved only in those patients who were on enteral tube feeding. Patients did not achieved their goals for vitamins. The supply of oligoelements was adequate except zinc. Nutritional monitoring parameters including weight, serum albumin and serum triglycerides were performed in almost all the patients but without uniformity. CONCLUSION: There was a lack in the implementation of nutritional support. Inadequacy of protein and micronutrients supply, irregular nutritional monitoring and infrequent enteral feeding were detected. A minimal standard for nutritional and metabolic monitoring and the organization of a multidisciplinary team in charge of coordinating the providing of nutritional support are suggested.

Nutritional and metabolic assessment of critically ill children.

In a prospective study, with the objective of determining the metabolic profile, response to nutrient supply, and role of nutritional and metabolic assessment parameters in children admitted to a pediatric ICU, 11 patients in the age group 2-12 were studied. The assessment was carried out during the first 72 hours of admission, and again seven days later, and included the following parameters; caloric supply; nitrogen supply; prealbumin serum level; urinary urea nitrogen; nitrogen balance and creatinine-height index. The evolution of the parameters in the two stages of the study showed the following results: The urinary urea nitrogen median value at admission was 7.5 g/m2 of corporeal surface, and did not present significant changes seven days later. There was a significant increase in caloric supply from 42.9 to 70.3 kcal/kg, and in nitrogen supply, from 4.7 to 10.2 g/m2 of corporeal surface p 0.01. The level of nitrogen balance rose from -5.6 to 2.5 g/24 h (p < 0.03), and that of prealbumin, from 16.7 to 26.3 mg/dl (p < 0.03). There was a significant reduction in the creatinine-height index, from 86.2 percent to 55.0 percent p 0.01. The magnitude of urinary urea nitrogen excretion at admission varied 2.5-13.8 g/m2 of corporeal surface. Based on this parameter, it was not possible to establish a characteristic metabolic profile for the conditions studied. Notwithstanding an increase in the protein and caloric supply, prealbumin level and nitrogen balance observed in the second stage of the study, the patients lost muscle mass and entered into a malnutrition process, probably due to intense protein catabolism and the poor response to nutrition supply that occurs in metabolic stress.

[Nutritional status of children with congenital heart disease and left-to-right shunt. The importance of the presence of pulmonary hypertension]. / O estado nutricional de crianças portadoras de cardiopatia congênita com shunt esquerda-direita. Importância da presença de hipertensão pulmonar.

PURPOSE: To assess the nutritional status of children with congenital heart disease with left-to-right shunt and the nutritional disturbances related to the presence of pulmonary hypertension (PH). METHODS: In a prospective study, the nutritional status of 30 children with left-to-right shunt (16 with and 14 without PH) was determined by anthropometric parameters and plasma proteins albumin, transferrin and prealbumin. Frequency and extent of nutritional disturbances were analysed in relation to the presence of PH. A control group of 20 well-nourished children was formed, aiming to compare the values of the serum proteins. RESULTS: The nutritional classification according to Waterlow's criteria showed an overall prevalence of malnutrition of 83.3%, which was higher in those with PH (p = 0.0140). This patient's group was more wasted than the group without PH (median z score of weight for height -1.65 vs -0.78). There was a high occurrence of measurements of arm fat area below the 5th percentile, which were similar in both groups. Serum levels of albumin and prealbumin were significantly lower in children with congenital heart disease than in the control group and transferrin values were similar in both. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of malnutrition was high. The presence of PH was associated with higher nutritional disturbance. The nutritional assessment may be a good way to identify diagnostic groups at particular risk of failure to thrive. This can be useful in planning a management which ensures these patients to achieve adequate nutritional supplementation in early life.

Nutritional assessment and surgical risk markers in children submitted to cardiac surgery.

In order to assess the nutritional status of children with heart diseases and to evaluate nutritional parameters for predicting postoperative complications, 50 children undergoing to cardiac surgery and classified in high and low surgical risk prospectively evaluated. Assessment parameters included anthropometry and plasma proteins albumin, transferrin and prealbumin. The nutritional classification according to Waterlow's modified criteria showed a high prevalence of malnutrition in the population studied (78%). The measures of arm circumference when located below the 5th percentile showed a significant association with general postoperative complications in the high risk group (arm circumference, p = 0.0019; arm muscle circumference, p = 0.0419). The percentage of weight per height, serum albumin and transferrin has not played a prognostic role concerning postoperative morbidity. The mean value of prealbumin was significantly lower in high risk group patients developing postoperative infections (p < 0.01) compared to those who did not. The sensitivity-specificity analysis of prealbumin as risk indicator for postoperative infection was 87.5% and 59% respectively. The nutritional risk classification seems to be a good way to identify the subgroups of children with additional postoperative surgical risk. However, more specific and sensitive tests are desirable to provide an individual identification of these children.

Anthropometric nutritional assessment of critically ill hospitalized children.

In a prospective study, the nutritional status was evaluated in 46 consecutive admissions to a Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, using anthropometric parameters. About 65% of the patients presented malnutrition on admission, with predominance of the chronic form. The mortality rate was greater in the malnourished (20 versus 12.5%) and chronic malnutrition was associated with a higher incidence of infection (42%). There was a fall in channel of percentile for weight-for-height in 36% of the patients evaluated at the final follow up. These results suggest that a significant number of patients are at nutritional risk at the time of hospital admission, and there is an association between nutritional status and hospital course. The anthropometric nutritional evaluation is a simple an reproducible method, and a valuable parameter for an objective nutritional assessment of the critically ill child. Therefore, it should be performed on admission and follow up of hospitalized children.

Nasoduodenal feeding of the critically ill child.

Malnutrition frequently occurs among hospitalized children (19, 23, 24) and is associated with increased rates of morbidity and mortality (3, 5). Because of this hypercatabolic condition, a critically ill patient may undergo a process of acute malnutrition within a few days (7, 27, 34). The nutritional or metabolic support provided in these situations is usually by the parenteral or enteral route, depending on the presence of a functioning digestive tract. When exclusively parenteral feeding is used, prolonged fasting may deprive the intestine of specific nutrients and reduce its function of nutrient processing and absorption for lack of a substrate, with the consequent occurrence of atrophy. Clinical and experimental studies have demonstrated the advantages of the enteral route, which is more physiological, has a lower rate of complications and involves easier administration when compared to the parenteral route. Experimental studies (15, 21) have shown a hypoplastic response of the intestinal mucosa of rats after 3 days of parenteral nutrition when compared to controls submitted to enteral feeding. This response was measured in terms of mucosal weight, villus hypoplasia, DNA protein content, enzyme activity, and pancreatic function. Similar changes detected in clinical studies were rapidly reversed to normal after feeding by the digestive route (13). It is suggested that the mechanism of these alterations may involve the absence of intraluminal amino acids needed for enzyme synthesis rather than the lack of specific substrates inducing enzyme production.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)