Group A Streptococcus disease in Hong Kong children: an overview.

Group A ß-haemolytic Streptococcus or Streptococcus pyogenes is a gram-positive coccus that tends to grow in chains. Streptococcus pyogenes is the cause of many important human diseases, ranging from pharyngitis and mild superficial skin infections to life-threatening systemic diseases. Infections typically begin in the throat or skin. Mild Streptococcus pyogenes infections include pharyngitis (strep throat) and localised skin infections (impetigo). Erysipelas and cellulitis are characterised by multiplication and lateral spread of Streptococcus pyogenes in deep layers of the skin. Streptococcus pyogenes invasion and fascial involvement can lead to necrotising fasciitis, a life-threatening condition. Scarlet fever is characterised by a sandpaper-like rash in children with fever and is caused by a streptococcal toxin. Severe infections that lead to septicaemia or toxic shock syndrome are associated with high mortality. Autoimmune reactions cause characteristic syndromes such as rheumatic fever and nephritis. Epidemiology, disease presentation, diagnosis, and treatment of paediatric patients in Hong Kong with group A ß-haemolytic Streptococcus are reviewed in this article. Streptococcus pyogenes disease is readily treatable, as the organism is invariably sensitive to penicillin. Delayed treatment of this common childhood pathogen is associated with significant mortality and morbidity.

Mortality and morbidity of extremely low birth weight infants in Hong Kong, 2010-2017: a single-centre review.

BACKGROUND: Extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants exhibit high rates of mortality and morbidity. We retrospectively assessed factors associated with mortality and morbidity among ELBW infants. METHODS: Perinatal demographic data were reviewed for all ELBW infants born between 2010 and 2017 at a tertiary neonatal unit. RESULTS: For non-survivors (21% of ELBW infants) and survivors, the median gestational ages were 24.1 and 26.2 weeks, respectively, and median birth weights were 650 g and 780 g, respectively (all P<0.001). Regression analyses showed that non-survival was positively associated with lower gestational age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]=6.71 for every 1-week decrease; 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.73-26.00; P=0.006) and grade 3 or 4 intraventricular haemorrhage (aOR=29.23; 95% CI=1.39-613.84; P=0.030); non-survival was negatively associated with the presence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia (aOR=0.01; 95% CI= <0.001-0.23; P=0.005); length of neonatal intensive care unit stay for survivors was positively associated with the presence of necrotising enterocolitis (B-coefficient=89.60; 95% CI=43.86-135.34; P<0.001); and length of hospital stay for survivors was positively associated with the presence of necrotising enterocolitis (B-coefficient=2.08; 95% CI=0.43-3.73; P=0.015) and a low Apgar score at 1 minute (B-coefficient=-0.63; 95% CI=-1.04 to -0.22; P=0.003). CONCLUSION: Extremely low birth weight infants exhibited significant mortality and morbidity; there was no survival prior to 23.6 weeks' gestation or below 550 g birth weight. The presence of grade 3 or 4 intraventricular haemorrhage was independently associated with non-survival. Survivors were significantly more likely to exhibit bronchopulmonary dysplasia; survivors with necrotising enterocolitis were more likely to require longer stays in the neonatal intensive care unit and in hospital.

Measles: a disease often forgotten but not gone.

Measles (rubeola) is a highly contagious vaccine-preventable disease caused by the measles virus-a virus of the Paramyxoviridae family. The illness typically begins with fever, runny nose, cough, and pathognomonic enanthem (Koplik spots) followed by a characteristic erythematous, maculopapular rash. The rash classically begins on the face and becomes more confluent as it spreads cephalocaudally. Laboratory confirmation of measles virus infection can be based on a positive serological test for measles-specific immunoglobulin M antibody, a four-fold or greater increase in measles-specific immunoglobulin G between acute and convalescent sera, isolation of measles virus in culture, or detection of measles virus ribonucleic acid by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Complications occur in 10% to 40% of patients, and treatment is mainly symptomatic. Bacterial superinfections, if present, should be properly treated with antibiotics. To eradicate measles, universal childhood immunisation and vaccination of all susceptible individuals with measles vaccine would be ideal. In developed countries, routine immunisation with measles-containing vaccine is recommended, with the first and second doses at ages 12 to 15 months and 4 to 6 years, respectively. The World Health Organization recommends that the first and second doses of measles-containing vaccine be given at ages 9 months and 15 to 18 months, respectively, in countries with high rates of measles transmission.

Childhood lead poisoning: an overview.

Childhood lead poisoning is a major public health concern in many countries. In 2015, the Hong Kong SAR Government and its citizens faced a major public health crisis due to the presence of lead in the drinking water of a number of public housing estates. Fortunately, no child was diagnosed with lead poisoning that required treatment with chelation. Lead is a ubiquitous, naturally occurring material that exists in air, dust, soil, and water. It is also widely present in industrial products including petrol, paints, ceramics, food cans, candies, cosmetics, traditional remedies, batteries, solder, stained glass, crystal vessels, ammunition, ceramic glazes, jewellry, and toys. It can also be found in human milk. There is no safe blood lead level and it may be impossible to completely eliminate lead from any city. Hence routine measurement of blood lead levels is not considered useful. Acute poisoning, especially with encephalopathy, deserves immediate medical treatment in hospital. Chelation therapy is recommended if blood lead level is 45 µg/dL or higher. For blood levels between 20 and 45 µg/dL, treatment is indicated if the child is symptomatic. For blood levels below 20 µg/dL in otherwise asymptomatic children, the principle of treatment is to provide long-term neurodevelopmental follow-up and counselling. In all cases, immediate removal of the source of lead exposure is vital. Even low levels of lead exposure can significantly impair learning, educational attainment, and neurodevelopment.