Optimizing entropy weight model to accurately predict variation of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the estuaries and coasts of the South China.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have raised increasing concern worldwide due to their continuous release and potential hazards to the ecosystem and human health. This study optimized the entropy weight model (EW-WRSR) that combines entropy weight with multi-criteria decision analysis to investigate pollution patterns of PPCPs in the coasts and estuaries. The results revealed that occurrences of PPCPs from the 1940s to the present were consistent with using PPCPs, different types of human activities, and local urban development. This helped better understand the history of PPCP contamination and evaluate the uncertainty of EW-WRSR. The model predicted hotspots of PPCPs that were consistent with the actual situation, indicating that PPCPs mainly enter the nearshore ecosystem by the form of sewage discharge and residual aquaculture. This study can provide method that identifying highly contaminated regions on a global scale.

Improper toy waste handling can harm human health via seafood consumption: A comprehensive health risk assessment of heavy metals.

Toy production has been increasing over the last few decades to meet the growing demands for toys across the globe, which has inevitably worsened the problem of toy waste. Given the lack of modern waste disposal facilities, rural villagers in many developing countries often discard and incinerate toy waste in backyards or riverbanks, which may release the pollutants from toys (e.g., heavy metals), contaminate the surrounding areas, and eventually threaten the health of residents. As such, this study examined the impact of improper toy waste handling on the nearby aquaculture site by measuring the contamination level of heavy metals (As, Cd, Cu, Pb, and Zn) in the sediment and seafood (crabs, shrimps, and fish). The health risk of heavy metals via seafood consumption was assessed in different groups of people (males, females, teenagers, and seniors). Results showed that the sediment and seafood at the aquaculture site were generally not contaminated with heavy metals (contamination factor and bioaccumulation factor <1). However, consuming the seafood cultured at this site, especially for crabs, could pose a health risk to humans due to As and Cd (hazard quotient > 1), irrespective of their age and gender. This risk could not be lowered by cooking, except As by boiling. Overall, we revealed that improper toy waste handling did not cause severe heavy metal pollution in the surrounding environment, but the consumption of contaminated seafood could still threaten human health. To safeguard public health, we propose that toy waste should be appropriately treated by the authorities concerned. In addition, consuming seafood with long culture periods (e.g., crabs) should be reduced to minimize the dietary intake of heavy metals and their associated health risk.

Can PFAS threaten the health of fish consumers? A comprehensive analysis linking fish consumption behaviour and health risk.

Despite being phased out for decades, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are still widely detected in the environment and accumulated in many aquaculture organisms for human consumption. Thus, there is growing concern about whether fish consumption can cause PFAS-associated health impacts on humans since fish is a vital protein source for global populations. Here, we assess the potential driving factors of fish consumption by analysing the aquaculture, demographic and socio-economic data across 31 provinces/municipalities in China, followed by estimating the health risk of PFAS via fish consumption. We found that per capita fish consumption was primarily driven by fish production and total area for freshwater aquaculture, while urbanization rate and median age of consumers were also important. The health risk of PFAS was low (hazard quotient <1) in most provinces, while urban consumers were more prone to PFAS than rural consumers across all provinces. Since PFAS have been phased out worldwide, their health risk to humans through fish consumption would be lower than previously thought. To reduce PFAS intake for the high-risk populations, we recommend that fish should be well cooked before consumption, preferably using water-based cooking methods, and that alternative protein sources should be consumed more as the substitute for fish.

Can antimony contamination in soil undermine the ecological contributions of earthworms?

As antimony (Sb) has been increasingly used in manufacturing industries (e.g., alloy, polymer and electronics industries), Sb contamination in the soil environment becomes widely reported and has drawn growing attention due to the toxicity of Sb to living organisms. Whether soil-dwelling organisms can tolerate Sb toxicity and maintain their ecological functions remains poorly understood. Using a cosmopolitan, ecologically important earthworm species (Eisenia fetida) as an ideal model organism, we examine the effects of Sb on the physiological, molecular and behavioural responses of earthworms to different levels of Sb contamination in soil (0, 10, 50, 100, 250 and 500 mg/kg). We found that earthworms could tolerate heavy Sb contamination (100 mg/kg) by boosting their antioxidant defence (POD and GST) and immune systems (ACP) so that their body weight and survival rate were sustained (c.f. control). However, these systems were compromised under extreme Sb contamination (500 mg/kg), leading to mortality. As such, earthworms exhibited avoidance behaviour to escape from the Sb-contaminated soil, implying the loss of their ecological contributions to the environment (e.g., increase in soil aeration and maintenance of soil structure). By measuring various types of biomarkers along a concentration gradient, this study provides a mechanistic understanding of how earthworms resist or succumb to Sb toxicity. Since extreme Sb contamination in soil (>100 mg/kg) is rarely found in nature, we are optimistic that the health and performance of earthworms are not influenced by Sb in most circumstances, but regular monitoring of Sb in soil is recommended to ensure the integrity and functioning of soil environment. Further studies are recommended to evaluate the long-term impact of Sb in the soil ecosystem through bioaccumulation and trophic transfer among soil-dwelling organisms.

Transcriptomic responses reveal impaired physiological performance of the pearl oyster following repeated exposure to marine heatwaves.

Marine heatwaves are predicted to become more intense and frequent in the future, possibly threatening the survival of marine organisms and devastating their communities. While recent evidence reveals the adaptability of marine organisms to heatwaves, substantially overlooked is whether they can also adjust to repeated heatwave exposure, which can occur in nature. By analysing transcriptome, we examined the fitness and recoverability of the pearl oyster (Pinctada maxima) after two consecutive heatwaves (24 °C to 32 °C for 3 days; recovery at 24 °C for 4 days). In the first heatwave, 331 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were found, such as AGE-RAGE, MAPK, JAK-STAT, FoxO and mTOR. Despite the recovery after the first heatwave, 2511 DEGs related to energy metabolism, body defence, cell proliferation and biomineralization were found, where 1655 of them were downregulated, suggesting a strong negative response to the second heatwave. Our findings imply that some marine organisms can indeed tolerate heatwaves by boosting energy metabolism to support molecular defence, cell proliferation and biomineralization, but this capacity can be overwhelmed by repeated exposure to heatwaves. Since recurrence of heatwaves within a short period of time is predicted to be more prevalent in the future, the functioning of marine ecosystems would be disrupted if marine organisms fail to accommodate repeated extreme thermal stress.

Is Ocean Acidification Really a Threat to Marine Calcifiers? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 980+ Studies Spanning Two Decades.

Ocean acidification is considered detrimental to marine calcifiers, but mounting contradictory evidence suggests a need to revisit this concept. This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to critically re-evaluate the prevailing paradigm of negative effects of ocean acidification on calcifiers. Based on 5153 observations from 985 studies, many calcifiers (e.g., echinoderms, crustaceans, and cephalopods) are found to be tolerant to near-future ocean acidification (pH ≈ 7.8 by the year 2100), but coccolithophores, calcifying algae, and corals appear to be sensitive. Calcifiers are generally more sensitive at the larval stage than adult stage. Over 70% of the observations in growth and calcification are non-negative, implying the acclimation capacity of many calcifiers to ocean acidification. This capacity can be mediated by phenotypic plasticity (e.g., physiological, mineralogical, structural, and molecular adjustments), transgenerational plasticity, increased food availability, or species interactions. The results suggest that the impacts of ocean acidification on calcifiers are less deleterious than initially thought as their adaptability has been underestimated. Therefore, in the forthcoming era of ocean acidification research, it is advocated that studying how marine organisms persist is as important as studying how they perish, and that future hypotheses and experimental designs are not constrained within the paradigm of negative effects.

Microplastics can aggravate the impact of ocean acidification on the health of mussels: Insights from physiological performance, immunity and byssus properties.

Ocean acidification may increase the risk of disease outbreaks that would challenge the future persistence of marine organisms if their immune system and capacity to produce vital structures for survival (e.g., byssus threads produced by bivalves) are compromised by acidified seawater. These potential adverse effects may be exacerbated by microplastic pollution, which is forecast to co-occur with ocean acidification in the future. Thus, we evaluated the impact of ocean acidification and microplastics on the health of a mussel species (Mytilus coruscus) by assessing its physiological performance, immunity and byssus properties. We found that ocean acidification and microplastics not only reduced hemocyte concentration and viability due to elevated oxidative stress, but also undermined phagocytic activity of hemocytes due to lowered energy budget of mussels, which was in turn caused by the reduced feeding performance and energy assimilation. Byssus quality (strength and extensibility) and production were also reduced by ocean acidification and microplastics. To increase the chance of survival with these stressors, the mussels prioritized the synthesis of some byssus proteins (Mfp-4 and Mfp-5) to help maintain adhesion to substrata. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that co-occurrence of ocean acidification and microplastic pollution would increase the susceptibility of bivalves to infectious diseases and dislodgement risk, thereby threatening their survival and undermining their ecological contributions to the community.

Shark teeth can resist ocean acidification.

Ocean acidification can cause dissolution of calcium carbonate minerals in biological structures of many marine organisms, which can be exacerbated by warming. However, it is still unclear whether this also affects organisms that have body parts made of calcium phosphate minerals (e.g. shark teeth), which may also be impacted by the 'corrosive' effect of acidified seawater. Thus, we examined the effect of ocean acidification and warming on the mechanical properties of shark teeth (Port Jackson shark, Heterodontus portusjacksoni), and assessed whether their mineralogical properties can be modified in response to predicted near-future seawater pH (-0.3 units) and temperature (+3°C) changes. We found that warming resulted in the production of more brittle teeth (higher elastic modulus and lower mechanical resilience) that were more vulnerable to physical damage. Yet, when combined with ocean acidification, the durability of teeth increased (i.e. less prone to physical damage due to the production of more elastic teeth) so that they did not differ from those raised under ambient conditions. The teeth were chiefly made of fluorapatite (Ca5 (PO4 )3 F), with increased fluoride content under ocean acidification that was associated with increased crystallinity. The increased precipitation of this highly insoluble mineral under ocean acidification suggests that the sharks could modulate and enhance biomineralization to produce teeth which are more resistant to corrosion. This adaptive mineralogical adjustment could allow some shark species to maintain durability and functionality of their teeth, which underpins a fundamental component of predation and sustenance of the trophic dynamics of future oceans.

Norethindrone causes cellular and hepatic injury in zebrafish by compromising the metabolic processes associated with antioxidant defence: Insights from metabolomics.

Progestins, such as norethindrone (NET), have been increasingly detected in aquatic environments due to their extensive use for medical applications. While NET is notorious for its endocrine disrupting effects, it has been recently shown to cause cellular damage, suggesting its potential impacts on the body defence of organisms. Hence, we examined the histological features and antioxidant defence of zebrafish (Danio rerio) after exposing to NET (50 ng/L and 500 ng/L) for 72 days, followed by analysing its metabolome to explore whether NET disturbs the metabolic processes responsible for antioxidant defence. While acute mortality was not triggered, we found that antioxidant defence was substantially weakened by NET at 500 ng/L (i.e. reduced SOD and GSH levels) and hence liver injury was inflicted (i.e. elevated ALT and MDA levels), as manifested by vacuolization of liver tissues and reduced number of normal cells in the liver. Metabolomic analysis showed that the metabolic processes responsible for antioxidant defence were disrupted by NET (e.g. upregulation of nervonyl carnitine and chenodeoxycholic acid 3-sulfate; downregulation of homolanthionine and acevaltrate) and these changes can undermine antioxidant defence by suppressing Nrf2-ARE and NF-κB pathways that contribute to the synthesis of SOD and GSH. This study demonstrates how NET can compromise the body defence of aquatic organisms via metabolic disruption, suggesting that the impacts of progestins on their fitness are more detrimental than previously thought.

Long-term thermal acclimation drives adaptive physiological adjustments of a marine gastropod to reduce sensitivity to climate change.

Ocean warming is predicted to challenge the persistence of a variety of marine organisms, especially when combined with ocean acidification. While temperature affects virtually all physiological processes, the extent to which thermal history mediates the adaptive capacity of marine organisms to climate change has been largely overlooked. Using populations of a marine gastropod (Turbo undulatus) with different thermal histories (cool vs. warm), we compared their physiological adjustments following exposure (8-week) to ocean acidification and warming. Compared to cool-acclimated counterparts, we found that warm-acclimated individuals had a higher thermal threshold (i.e. increased CTmax by 2 °C), which was unaffected by the exposure to ocean acidification and warming. Thermal history also strongly mediated physiological effects, where warm-acclimated individuals adjusted to warming by conserving energy, suggested by lower respiration and ingestion rates, energy budget (i.e. scope for growth) and O:N ratio. After exposure to warming, warm-acclimated individuals had higher metabolic rates and greater energy budget due to boosted ingestion rates, but such compensatory feeding disappeared when combined with ocean acidification. Overall, we suggest that thermal history can be a critical mediator of physiological performance under future climatic conditions. Given the relatively gradual rate of global warming, marine organisms may be better able to adaptively adjust their physiology to future climate than what short-term experiments currently convey.

Agricultural activities compromise ecosystem health and functioning of rivers: Insights from multivariate and multimetric analyses of macroinvertebrate assemblages.

Agricultural activities often lead to nutrient enrichment and habitat modification in rivers, possibly altering macroinvertebrate assemblages and hence ecosystem functioning. For the sake of environmental management and conservation, therefore, assessing the impacts of agricultural activities becomes indispensable, especially when these activities are predicted to be intensified in the future. In this study, the plain river network in the Lake Chaohu Basin was chosen to examine how agricultural activities influence the functioning of rivers by assessing land use, water quality, habitat condition and macroinvertebrate assemblages, followed by calculating the macroinvertebrate-based multimetric index (MMI) to indicate overall ecosystem health of the rivers. We found that agricultural activities lowered the diversity of macroinvertebrates (e.g. total number of taxa and Simpson index) primarily due to elevated ammonium concentrations in water and reduced microhabitat types, thereby impairing the habitat integrity and nutrient cycling of rivers. The macroinvertebrate-based MMI was positively correlated with increasing habitat quality but negatively with increasing nutrient concentrations, suggesting its high reliability for indicating the impacts of agricultural activities, which was further substantiated by classification and regression tree (CART) analysis. We recommend analyzing macroinvertebrate assemblages using both multivariate and multimetric approaches to offer a more comprehensive evaluation of the impacts of agricultural activities on ecosystem health. Some environmental (CODMn, NH4+-N and PO43--P) and biological parameters (total number of taxa), however, can be used as good proxies for MMI, when time and resources for gathering information to develop MMI are limited.

Reproductive potential of mosquitofish is reduced by the masculinizing effect of a synthetic progesterone, gestodene: Evidence from morphology, courtship behaviour, ovary histology, sex hormones and gene expressions.

The ever-increasing use of synthetic hormones, especially progestins, for medical applications has drawn growing concerns due to their potential endocrine disrupting effects that may diminish the reproductive outputs of aquatic organisms. Using mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) as a model species, we tested whether gestodene (GES), a commonly used progestin, can alter the expressions of genes associated with sex hormone synthesis and cause ensuing changes in morphological features, courtship behaviour and oocyte development. After exposing to GES at environmentally relevant concentrations (2.96, 32.9 and 354 ng L-1) for 40 days, we found that GES, especially at 354 ng L-1, induced masculinization of female fish, indicated by the reduced body weight to length ratio and development of gonopodia (i.e. anal fins of male fish). Thus, the males showed less intimacy and mating interest towards the GES-exposed females, indicated by the reduced time spent on attending, following and mating behaviours. While oocyte development was seemingly unaffected by GES, spermatogonia were developed in the ovary. All the aforementioned masculinizing effects of GES were associated with the increased testosterone level and decreased estradiol level, driven by upregulating androgen receptor genes (Arα and Arß). Overall, our findings suggest that progestins could undermine the reproductive potential of aquatic organisms and hence their persistence in the progestin-contaminated environment.

Microplastic accumulation via trophic transfer: Can a predatory crab counter the adverse effects of microplastics by body defence?

Microplastics are considered detrimental to aquatic organisms due to their potential accumulation along food chains. Thus, it is puzzling why some of them appear unaffected by microplastics. Here, we assessed the contribution of water filtration and food consumption to microplastic accumulation in a predatory marine crab (Charybdis japonica) and examined the associated impacts of microplastics (particle size: 5 µm) following ingestion for one week. Results showed that water filtration and food consumption contributed similarly to the accumulation of microplastics, which were distributed among organs in this order: hepatopancreas > guts > gills > muscles. Yet, biomagnification (i.e. accumulation through consumption of microplastic-contaminated mussels) did not occur possibly due to egestion of microplastics. The crabs upregulated detoxification capacity (EROD) and antioxidant defence (GST) in response to the microplastics accumulated in their tissues. However, these defence mechanisms collapsed when the microplastic concentration in hepatopancreas exceeded ~3 mg g-1, leading to severe hepatic injury (elevated AST and ALT) and impaired neural activity (reduced AChE). Our results suggest that marine organisms have an innate capacity to counter the acute effects of microplastics, but there is a limit beyond which the defence mechanisms fail and hence physiological functions are impaired. As microplastic pollution will deteriorate in the future, the fitness and survival of marine organisms may be undermined by microplastics, affecting the stability and functioning of marine ecosystems.

Calcifiers can Adjust Shell Building at the Nanoscale to Resist Ocean Acidification.

Ocean acidification is considered detrimental to marine calcifiers based on laboratory studies showing that increased seawater acidity weakens their ability to build calcareous shells needed for growth and protection. In the natural environment, however, the effects of ocean acidification are subject to ecological and evolutionary processes that may allow calcifiers to buffer or reverse these short-term negative effects through adaptive mechanisms. Using marine snails inhabiting a naturally CO2 -enriched environment over multiple generations, it is discovered herein that they build more durable shells (i.e., mechanically more resilient) by adjusting the building blocks of their shells (i.e., calcium carbonate crystals), such as atomic rearrangement to reduce nanotwin thickness and increased incorporation of organic matter. However, these adaptive adjustments to future levels of ocean acidification (year 2100) are eroded at extreme CO2 concentrations, leading to construction of more fragile shells. The discovery of adaptive mechanisms of shell building at the nanoscale provides a new perspective on why some calcifiers may thrive and others collapse in acidifying oceans, and highlights the inherent adaptability that some species possess in adjusting to human-caused environmental change.

Norethindrone alters mating behaviors, ovary histology, hormone production and transcriptional expression of steroidogenic genes in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

The impact of progestins (i.e. synthetic forms of progesterone) on aquatic organisms has drawn increasing attention due to their widespread occurrence in the aquatic environments and potential effects on the endocrine system of fish. In this study, the effects of norethindrone (NET, a progestin) on the reproductive behavior, sex hormone production and transcriptional expressions were evaluated by exposing female zebrafish to NET at 0, 3.1, 36.2 and 398.6 ng L-1 for 60 days. Results showed that NET impaired the mating behaviors of female at 36.2 and 398.6 ng L-1 exhibited by males and increased the frequency of atretic follicular cells in the ovary exposed to NET at 398.6 ng L-1. As for sex hormones, plasma testosterone concentration in zebrafish increased, while estradiol concentration decreased. Up-regulation of genes (Npr, Mpra, Mprß, Fshß, Lß, Tshb, Nis and Dio2) was detected in the brain of fish exposed to NET at 398.6 ng L-1. The transcriptional levels of genes (Esr1, Vtg1, Ar, Cyp19a, Cyp11b and Ptgs2) were generally inhibited in the ovary of zebrafish by NET at 398.6 ng L-1. Moreover, the transcripts of genes (Vtg1, Esr1, Ar and Pgr) in the liver were reduced by NET at 36.2 and 398.6 ng L-1. Our findings suggest that NET can potentially diminish the of fish populations not only by damaging their reproductive organs, but also by altering their mating behavior through the changes in the expressions of genes responsible for the production of sex hormones.

Linking energy budget to physiological adaptation: How a calcifying gastropod adjusts or succumbs to ocean acidification and warming.

Accelerating CO2 emissions have driven physico-chemical changes in the world's oceans, such as ocean acidification and warming. How marine organisms adjust or succumb to such environmental changes may be determined by their ability to balance energy intake against expenditure (i.e. energy budget) as energy supports physiological functions, including those with adaptive value. Here, we examined whether energy budget is a driver of physiological adaptability of marine calcifiers to the near-future ocean acidification and warming; i.e. how physiological energetics (respiration rate, feeding rate, energy assimilation and energy budget) relates to adjustments in shell growth and shell properties of a calcifying gastropod (Austrocochlea concamerata). We found that ocean warming boosted the energy budget of gastropods due to increased feeding rate, resulting in faster shell growth and greater shell strength (i.e. more mechanically resilient). When combined with ocean acidification, however, the gastropods had a substantial decrease in energy budget due to reduced feeding rate and energy assimilation, leading to the reduction in shell growth and shell strength. By linking energy budget to the adjustability of shell building, we revealed that energy availability can be critical to determine the physiological adaptability of marine calcifiers to the changing oceanic climate.

Occurrence, composition and biological risk of organophosphate esters (OPEs) in water of the Pearl River Estuary, South China.

Since the production of brominated flame retardants has been gradually phased out, organophosphate esters (OPEs) are increasingly used as the substitutes. Given their toxicity and water solubility, OPEs may jeopardize the aquatic environment and organisms. Here, we examined the concentration, composition, and biological risk of OPEs in the water collected from the eight major waterways in the Pearl River Delta, a highly industrialized region in China. We found a widespread occurrence of OPEs in this region (∑9OPEs: 134 to 442 ng L-1), dominated by TCPP, TCEP, and TnBP. Halogenated OPEs were dominant over alkyl and aromatic OPEs. The biological risk of OPEs, mainly contributed by TPhP and TnBP, was low (RQ < 0.1). The contamination level of OPEs in the Pearl River Delta was likely associated with the degree of industrial activities. Although OPEs posed low risk to aquatic organisms, more attention should be paid to some OPEs in the future, such as TnBP, due to the high usage and toxicity. Considering the concentrations of OPEs worldwide and their usage, OPEs may become the emerging pollutants of global concern in the next decade.

Accumulation of microplastics in typical commercial aquatic species: A case study at a productive aquaculture site in China.

The widespread occurrence of microplastics in the marine environment has drawn global attention because microplastics may impact the populations of marine organisms. As such, aquaculture industry may suffer from microplastic pollution, especially when plastic products are widely used for aquaculture. Here, we assessed the abundance and characteristics (type, size and composition) of microplastics in sediment and typical commercial species (fish, bivalves and shrimps) in an aquaculture site at Xiangshan Bay, which has been operated intensively for decades. Satellite remote sensing images revealed that aquaculture activities were associated with microplastic pollution in sediment, where the microplastics (51-88 items/kg dry weight) were mostly fibres (>94%) and between 500 and 2000 µm. Cellulose was the predominant polymer (60-88% of microplastic composition), followed by polypropylene. Microplastics accumulated in all the commercial species (0.95-2.1 items per individual), where shrimp (Parapenaeopsis hardwickii) had lower potential for microplastic accumulation than the other species. The predominance of fibres and cellulose in the commercial species implies their limited ability to recognize the type and composition of microplastics during ingestion. Given the limited accumulation of microplastics in these typical commercial species even at a productive aquaculture site, we suggest that microplastics may not increase the health risk of consuming seafood and their impacts on commercial species may be less deleterious than previously thought.

Stress across life stages: Impacts, responses and consequences for marine organisms.

Population dynamics of marine organisms are strongly driven by their survival in early life stages. As life stages are tightly linked, environmental stress experienced by organisms in the early life stage can worsen their performance in the subsequent life stage (i.e. carry-over effect). However, stressful events can be ephemeral and hence organisms may be able to counter the harmful effects of transient stress. Here, we analysed the published data to examine the relative strength of carry-over effects on the juvenile growth of marine organisms, caused by different stressors (hypoxia, salinity, starvation, ocean acidification and stress-induced delayed metamorphosis) confronted in their larval stage. Based on 31 relevant published studies, we revealed that food limitation had the greatest negative carry-over effect on juvenile growth. In the laboratory, we tested the effects of short-term early starvation and hypoxia on the larval growth and development of a model organism, polychaete Hydroides elegans, and assessed whether the larvae can accommodate the early stress to maintain their performance as juveniles (settlement and juvenile growth). Results showed that early starvation for 3 days (∼50% of normal larval period) retarded larval growth and development, leading to subsequent reduced settlement rate and juvenile growth. When the starvation period decreased to 1 day, however, the larvae could recover from early starvation through compensatory growth and performed normal as juveniles (c.f. control). Early exposure to hypoxia for 3 days did not affect larval growth (body length) and juvenile growth (tube length), but caused malformation of larvae and reduced settlement rate. We conclude that the adverse effects of transient stress can be carried across life stages (e.g. larval to juvenile stage), but depend on the duration of stressful events relative to larval period. As carry-over effects are primarily driven by energy acquisition, how food availability varies over time and space is fundamental to the population dynamics of marine organisms.

Adaptive responses of fishes to climate change: Feedback between physiology and behaviour.

The adaptive capacity of individuals, from their cells to their overall performance, allows species to adjust to environmental change. We assess a hierarchy of responses (from cells to organismal growth and behaviour) to understand the flexibility of adaptive responses to future ocean conditions (warming and acidification) in two species of fish with short lifespans by conducting a long-term mesocosm/aquarium experiment. Fishes were exposed to elevated CO2 and temperature in a factorial design for a five-month period. We found a feedback mechanism between cellular defence and behavioural responses. In circumstances where their antioxidant defence mechanism was activated (i.e. warming or acidification), increased feeding rates prevented oxidative damage (i.e. during warming Sp. 1). However, when feeding rates failed to increase to provide additional energy needed for antioxidant defence, oxidative damage could not be prevented (warming + acidification Sp. 1). In contrast, when the activation of antioxidant defence was not required, energy intake from increased feeding was redirected to increased fish growth (acidification Sp. 2, warming + acidification Sp. 2), whilst no gain in growth rate was observed where feeding remained unchanged (acidification Sp. 1 or warming Sp. 2). This adaptive strategy seems to rely on the inherent behavioural response of fishes to their environment and such adjustability shows the kind of responses that organisms may express to prevail in future ocean climate. Indeed, assessing the link between responses from cellular to organismal levels, using a diversity of fitness indicators and behaviour, provides a fundamental understanding of how organisms as a whole may adjust to prevail in a future world.