The effect of radiation treatment of solid tumors on neutrophil infiltration and function: a systematic review.

Radiotherapy (RT) initiates a local and systemic immune response which can induce anti-tumor immunity and improve immunotherapy efficacy. Neutrophils are among the first immune cells that infiltrate tumors after RT and are suggested to be essential for the initial anti-tumor immune response. However, neutrophils in tumors are associated with poor outcomes and RT induced neutrophil infiltration could also change the composition of the tumor microenvironment (TME) in favor of tumor progression. To improve RT efficacy for cancer patients it is important to understand the interplay between RT and neutrophils. Here, we review the literature on how RT affects the infiltration and function of neutrophils in the TME of solid tumors, using both patients studies and preclinical murine in vivo models. In general, it was found that neutrophil levels increase and reach maximal levels in the first days after RT and can remain elevated up to three weeks. Most studies report an immunosuppressive role of neutrophils in the TME after RT, caused by upregulated expression of neutrophil indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) and arginase 1 (ARG1), as well as neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation. RT was also associated with increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by neutrophils, which can both improve and inhibit anti-tumor immunity. In addition, multiple murine models showed improved RT efficacy when depleting neutrophils, suggesting that neutrophils have a pro-tumor phenotype after RT. We conclude that the role of neutrophils should not be overlooked when developing RT strategies and requires further investigation in specific tumor types. In addition, neutrophils can possibly be exploited to enhance RT efficacy by combining RT with neutrophil-targeting therapies.

Identification of a tumor-specific allo-HLA-restricted γδTCR.

γδT cells are key players in cancer immune surveillance because of their ability to recognize malignant transformed cells, which makes them promising therapeutic tools in the treatment of cancer. However, the biological mechanisms of how γδT-cell receptors (TCRs) interact with their ligands are poorly understood. Within this context, we describe the novel allo-HLA-restricted and CD8α-dependent Vγ5Vδ1TCR. In contrast to the previous assumption of the general allo-HLA reactivity of a minor fraction of γδTCRs, we show that classic anti-HLA-directed, γδTCR-mediated reactivity can selectively act on hematological and solid tumor cells, while not harming healthy tissues in vitro and in vivo. We identified the molecular interface with proximity to the peptide-binding groove of HLA-A*24:02 as the essential determinant for recognition and describe the critical role of CD8 as a coreceptor. We conclude that alloreactive γδT-cell repertoires provide therapeutic opportunities, either within the context of haplotransplantation or as individual γδTCRs for genetic engineering of tumor-reactive T cells.

The latest developments with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies in chronic lymphocytic leukemia.

INTRODUCTION: In more recent years, anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies have become the backbone in the treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). Historically, these antibodies were typically combined with chemotherapeutic agents. At present, therapeutic outcomes are significantly improving with the introduction of several novel targeted drugs to the clinical repertoire. AREAS COVERED: In this review, we summarize the current clinical standard together with the latest developments in the field of anti-CD20 antibodies against CLL. In addition, novel promising drugs against CLL are discussed, as well as their potential for combination with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies. EXPERT OPINION: At present, there are three different anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies approved for the treatment of CLL with diverse effector mechanisms. These antibodies provide a robust foundation for combination therapy with novel molecules. Current research should be focused on reducing toxicity and reaching long-lasting remissions. There is still much to gain regarding the optimization of treatment combinations and dosing schedules for CLL. Overcoming the limitations of currently used anti-CD20 antibodies will be critical to further improve the efficacy of CLL therapy.

Ordnung muss sein: heteroelement order and disorder in polyoxovanadates.

The first mixed antimonato-germanato polyoxovanadates were synthesized using two different strategies, highlighting the critical role of the precursors. Following the traditional route using multiple single sources as precursors the polyanions [V15Sb2Ge4O42(OH)4(H2O)]6- (1) and [V15Sb3Ge3O42(OH)3(H2O)]6- (2) are obtained, which display disorder of their Sb/Ge positions, indicating that clusters of different compositions are in equilibrium in solution. In contrast, if the water-soluble single-source precursor {Ni(en)3}3[V15Sb6O42(H2O)]·ca. 15H2O is reacted with GeO2, {Ni(en)3}3[V15Sb3Ge3O42(OH)3(H2O)]·≈9H2O (3) forms, in which Sb and Ge occupy distinct positions that might have been formed via partial substitution reactions in the {V15Sb6} precursor.

In situ ligand exchange-mediated 0D/1D transformation of a polyoxovanadate.

The antimonato-polyoxovanadate {NiII(en)3}3[VSbO42(H2O)]·ca.15H2O was utilized as a synthon for the solvothermal in situ generation of the new compound {NiII(phen)3}2[{NiII(en)2}VSbO42(H2O)]·19H2O, a rearrangement induced by ligand metathesis. While in the precursor structure cations and anions are isolated, the solid-state structure of the product is characterized by 1D chains consisting of alternating [V15Sb6O42(H2O)]6- cluster shells and [Ni(en)2]2+ units covalently linked to neighboring clusters via terminal oxygen atoms. Water clusters composed of sixteen hydrogen-bonded H2O molecules are located in void spaces of the structure. The magnetic properties indicate weak antiferromagnetic interactions of the bridging Ni2+ center and adjacent polyoxovanadate anions, as well as small magnetic anisotropy of the individual Ni2+ centers.

Expression of CD64 (FcγRI) in skin of patients with acute GVHD.

GVHD remains a major problem in allo-SCT. We explored the presence of APC in skin biopsies of GVHD patients, using the IgG receptor CD64 expression as a hallmark for activated APC. By immunohistochemistry we demonstrated CD64 to be upregulated on host APC in skin biopsies of patients with acute GVHD and, less prominently, in chronic GVHD. Double staining for CD32 polymorphism revealed CD64-positive cells to be mainly of host origin. The majority of CD64-positive cells coexpressed CD68, indicating a macrophage phenotype. Given its very restricted cellular distribution, CD64 may represent an excellent target for APC-directed therapies in GVHD.

Association of the leukocyte immunoglobulin G (Fcgamma) receptor IIIa-158V/F polymorphism with inflammatory myopathies in Dutch patients.

Leukocytes are involved in the pathogenesis of idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIMs). Immunoglobulin G (IgG) receptors (FcgammaR) link the specificity of IgG to the effector functions of leukocytes. Several FcgammaR subclasses display functional polymorphisms that determine in part the vigour of the inflammatory response. FcgammaRIIIa genotypes were differentially distributed among 100 IIM patients compared with 514 healthy controls with a significant increase of the homozygous FcgammaRIIIa-V-158 genotype (3 x 2 contingency table, chi(2) = 6.3, P = 0.04). Odds ratios (ORs) increased at the addition of each FcgammaRIIIa-V-158 allele, in particular among patients with non-specific myositis and dermatomyositis {OR 2.1 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.1-4.3] and 2.7 (95% CI 1.1-6.4) for FcgammaRIIIa-V/F158 and FcgammaRIIIa-V/V158 genotypes, respectively, using FcgammaRIIIa-F/F158 as a reference group}. These data suggest that the FcgammaRIIIa-V-158 allele may constitute a genetic risk marker for IIM.

Fc receptor-mediated immunity against Bordetella pertussis.

The relevance of specific Abs for the induction of cellular effector functions against Bordetella pertussis was studied. IgG-opsonized B. pertussis was efficiently phagocytosed by human polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN). This process was mediated by the PMN IgG receptors, FcgammaRIIa (CD32) and FcgammaRIIIb (CD16), working synergistically. Furthermore, these FcgammaR triggered efficient PMN respiratory burst activity and mediated transfer of B. pertussis to lysosomal compartments, ultimately resulting in reduced bacterial viability. Bacteria opsonized with IgA triggered similar PMN activation via FcalphaR (CD89). Simultaneous engagement of FcalphaRI and FcgammaR by B. pertussis resulted in increased phagocytosis rates, compared with responses induced by either isotype alone. These data provide new insights into host immune mechanisms against B. pertussis and document a crucial role for Ig-FcR interactions in immunity to this human pathogen.

Mac-1 (CD11b/CD18) is essential for Fc receptor-mediated neutrophil cytotoxicity and immunologic synapse formation.

Receptors for human immunoglobulin (Ig)G and IgA initiate potent cytolysis of antibody (Ab)-coated targets by polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs). Mac-1 (complement receptor type 3, CD11b/CD18) has previously been implicated in receptor cooperation with Fc receptors (FcRs). The role of Mac-1 in FcR-mediated lysis of tumor cells was characterized by studying normal human PMNs, Mac-1-deficient mouse PMNs, and mouse PMNs transgenic for human FcR. All PMNs efficiently phagocytosed Ab-coated particles. However, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) was abrogated in Mac-1(-/-) PMNs and in human PMNs blocked with anti-Mac-1 monoclonal Ab (mAb). Mac-1(-/-) PMNs were unable to spread on Ab-opsonized target cells and other Ab-coated surfaces. Confocal laser scanning and electron microscopy revealed a striking difference in immunologic synapse formation between Mac-1(-/-) and wild-type PMNs. Also, respiratory burst activity could be measured outside membrane-enclosed compartments by using Mac-1(-/-) PMNs bound to Ab-coated tumor cells, in contrast to wild-type PMNs. In summary, these data document an absolute requirement of Mac-1 for FcR-mediated PMN cytotoxicity toward tumor targets. Mac-1(-/-) PMNs exhibit defective spreading on Ab-coated targets, impaired formation of immunologic synapses, and absent tumor cytolysis.

Cytolytic mechanisms and expression of activation-regulating receptors on effector-type CD8+CD45RA+CD27- human T cells.

Circulating CD8+ T cells with a CD45RA+CD27- phenotype resemble cytolytic effector cells because they express various cytolytic mediators and are able to execute cytotoxicity without prior stimulation in vitro. We here demonstrate that CD8+CD45RA+CD27- T cells can use both granule exocytosis and Fas/Fas ligand pathways to induce apoptosis in target cells. The availability of these cytolytic mechanisms in circulating T cells suggests that the activity of these cells must be carefully controlled to prevent unwanted tissue damage. For this reason, we analyzed the expression of surface receptors that either enhance or inhibit T cell function. Compared with memory-type cells, effector cells were found to express normal levels of CD3epsilon and TCRzeta and relatively high levels of CD8. CTLA-4 was absent from freshly isolated effector cells, whereas a limited number of unstimulated memory cells expressed this molecule. In line with recent findings on CD8+CD28- T cells, CD45RA+CD27- T cells were unique in the abundant expression of NK cell-inhibitory receptors, both of Ig superfamily and C-type lectin classes. Binding of NK cell-inhibitory receptors to classical and nonclassical MHC class I molecules may inhibit the activation of the cytolytic machinery induced by either Ag receptor-specific or nonspecific signals in CD8+CD45RA+CD27- T cells.

Four novel mutations in the gene encoding gp91-phox of human NADPH oxidase: consequences for oxidase assembly.

The superoxide-forming nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reduced (NADPH) oxidase of human phagocytes comprises membrane-bound and cytosolic proteins, which, upon cell activation, assemble on the plasma membrane to form the active enzyme. Patients with chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) are defective in one of the phagocyte oxidase (phox) components, p47-phox or p67-phox, which reside in the cytosol of resting phagocytes, or gp91-phox or p22-phox, which constitute the membrane-bound cytochrome b(558). In four X-linked CGD patients we have identified novel missense mutations in CYBB, the gene encoding gp91-phox. These mutations were associated with normal amounts of nonfunctional cytochrome b(558) in the patients' neutrophils. In phorbol-myristate-stimulated neutrophils and in a cell-free translocation assay with neutrophil membranes and cytosol, the association of p47-phox and p67-phox with the membrane fraction of the cells with Cys369-->Arg, Gly408-->Glu, and Glu568--> Lys substitutions was strongly disturbed. Only a Thr341-->Lys substitution, residing in a region of gp91-phox involved in flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) binding, supported a normal translocation. Thus, the introduction or reversal of charge at residues 369, 408, and 568 in gp91-phox destroys the correct binding of p47-phox and p67-phox to cytochrome b(558). Based on mutagenesis studies of structurally related flavin-dependent oxidoreductases, we propose that the Thr341-->Lys substitution results in impaired hydride transfer from NADPH to FAD. Because we found no electron transfer in solubilized neutrophil plasma membranes from any of the four patients, we conclude that all four amino acid replacements are critical for electron transfer. Apparently, an intimate relation exists between domains of gp91-phox involved in electron transfer and in p47/p67-phox binding. (Blood. 2000;95:666-673)

The FcgammaRIa (CD64) ligand binding chain triggers major histocompatibility complex class II antigen presentation independently of its associated FcR gamma-chain.

Within multi-subunit Ig receptors, the FcR gamma-chain immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) plays a crucial role in enabling antigen presentation. This process involves antigen-capture and targeting to specific degradation and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II loading compartments. Antigenic epitopes are then presented by MHC class II molecules to specific T cells. The high-affinity receptor for IgG, hFcgammaRIa, is exclusively expressed on myeloid lineage cells and depends on the FcR gamma-chain for surface expression, efficient ligand binding, and most phagocytic effector functions. However, we show in this report, using the IIA1.6 cell model, that hFcgammaRIa can potentiate MHC class II antigen presentation, independently of a functional FcR gamma-chain ITAM. Immunoelectron microscopic analyses documented hFcgammaRIa alpha-chain/rabbit IgG-Ovalbumin complexes to be internalized and to migrate via sorting endosomes to MHC class II-containing late endosomes. Radical deletion of the hFcgammaRIa alpha-chain cytoplasmic tail did not affect internalization of rabbit IgG-Ovalbumin complexes. Importantly, however, this resulted in diversion of receptor-ligand complexes to the recycling pathway and decreased antigen presentation. These results show the hFcgammaRIa cytoplasmic tail to contain autonomous targeting information for intracellular trafficking of receptor-antigen complexes, although deficient in canonical tyrosine- or dileucine-targeting motifs. This is the first documentation of autonomous targeting by a member of the multichain FcR family that may critically impact the immunoregulatory role proposed for hFcgammaRIa (CD64).

The alternatively spliced CD64 transcript FcgammaRIb2 does not specify a surface-expressed isoform.

Three highly homologous genes (A, B and C) and six transcripts have been identified for the class I human IgG receptor (CD64). The hFcgammaRIa1 isoform encodes the prototypic high-affinity receptor for IgG. The alternatively spliced hFcgammaRIb2 transcript was postulated to exist as a second surface-expressed CD64 isoform on myeloid cells. In this report we assessed this proposed role for hFcgammaRIb2 in detail. As CD64 monoclonal antibodies might not recognize hFcgammaRIb2, we tagged the receptor with an hemagglutinin tag and transfected hFcgammaRIb2tag in the presence of FcR gamma-chain into IIA1.6 cells. Both transcript and protein of hFcgammaRIb2tag were clearly present in transfectants. However, in contrast to the (control) hFcgammaRIa1tag, no surface expression of hFcgammaRIb2tag was detectable with a tag-specific monoclonal antibody. Confocal scan laser microscopy revealed hFcgammaRIb2tag to be retained in the endoplasmic reticulum, resulting in absent plasma membrane expression. These results show hFcgammaRIb2 neither to be surface expressed, nor to represent a separate CD64 isoform. This finding, furthermore, implicates that other FcR transcripts defined at the mRNA level may not represent true FcR isoforms either.

Chronic bullous disease of childhood and a paecilomyces lung infection in chronic granulomatous disease.

A 12 year old boy suffering from p67-phox deficient chronic granulomatous disease presented with a bullous skin disease and a lung infection with paecilomyces species. The histopathology of a bullous lesion showed subepidermal blister formation and microabcesses containing eosinophils in the dermal papillae. By direct immunofluorescence, linear staining of IgA at the dermal-epidermal junction was detected which confirmed the clinical diagnosis of chronic bullous disease of childhood (linear IgA dermatosis).

Interactions between the components of the human NADPH oxidase: intrigues in the phox family.

The human NADPH oxidase is a very intriguing enzyme; although its catalytic unit is retained within cytochrome b558, various additional proteins are required for activity of the NADPH oxidase. In the past few years substantial progress has been made to elucidate the protein-protein interactions and the activation events involved. The following facts have become evident: (1) activation of rac and subsequent interaction with p67-phox is crucial for the interaction of p67-phox with cytochrome b558, and probably with gp91-phox; (2) p47-phox interacts with p22-phox, and phosphorylation of 379Ser of p47-phox is obligatory for this event; (3) p47-phox and p67-phox regulate each other's translocation in a positive sense (see also reference 71). To put it differently: it is vital to gain insight in the intrigues within the phox family and associated characters to fully understand NADPH oxidase activation.

Disturbed interaction of p21-rac with mutated p67-phox causes chronic granulomatous disease.

Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is characterized by the failure of phagocytic leukocytes to generate superoxide, needed for the intracellular killing of microorganisms. This is caused by mutations in any one of the four subunits of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase. In a rare, autosomal recessive form of CGD, a 67-kD cytosolic component of this enzyme (p67-phox) is missing. We here report on a patient with a mutation in the p67-phox gene that leads to expression of a nonfunctional p67-phox protein. The purified granulocytes of this patient failed to produce superoxide and contained about half of the normal amount of p67-phox. Analysis of the cDNA and genomic DNA of this patient showed that the patient is a compound heterozygote for a triplet nucleotide deletion in the p67-phox gene, predicting an in-frame deletion of lysine 58 in the p67-phox protein and a larger deletion of 11-13 kb in the other allele. Interestingly, the 58Lys deletion in p67-phox disrupts the interaction with p21-rac1, a ras-related protein involved in the activation of the NADPH oxidase. In contrast to normal neutrophils, in which p47-phox and p67-phox translocate to the plasma membrane upon cell activation, the cells of the patient did not show this translocation, indicating that an interaction between p67-phox and p21-rac1 is essential for translocation of these cytosolic proteins and activation of the NADPH oxidase. Moreover, this CGD patient represents the first case of disease caused by a disturbed binding of a ras-related protein to its target protein.

Interactions between the components of the human NADPH oxidase: a review about the intrigues in the phox family.

When microorganisms invade the body, they encounter a large asssortment of defense mechanisms. Among these, phagocytes play an important role in the process of killing pathogens. This event is mediated by two important processes, viz. activation of the NADPH oxidase enzyme, which leads to the production of toxic oxygen metabolites, and fusion of intracellular granules with the phagosome (the vesicle that contains the ingested micro-organisms), which causes release of the toxic granule contents into this vesicle. The human NADPH oxidase is a very complex enzyme, in two ways: 1. it exists of at least 6 components: cytochrome b558 (a heterodimer comprised of gp91-phox and p22-phox), p47-phox, p67-phox, p40-phox, rac and Rap1A, and 2. there are multiple signal transduction pathways leading to activation of the NADPH oxidase. The most likely reason for this complexity is the toxicity of the oxygen radicals produced by the active NADPH oxidase; these compounds are not only harmful to the invading pathogens, but also to the surrounding tissues. This latter effect is enforced by the activation of metalloproteases released by neutrophils and by oxidation of protease inhibitors by oxygen metabolites. Therefore, an improper activation of the NADPH oxidase must be prevented at all costs and, when the infection has been cleared, a rapid deactivation mechanism is imperative. In this review, the interaction between the different components of the NADPH oxidase and the activation of these proteins will be discussed.

A novel polymorphism in the coding region of CYBB, the human gp91-phox gene.

We have identified a rare polymorphism (G to C at nucleotide 1102) in CYBB, which codes for gp91-phox, a component of NADPH oxidase. Polymorphonuclear leukocytes with this enzyme produced normal amounts of superoxide anion.

Prevalence, genetics and clinical presentation of chronic granulomatous disease in Sweden.

To estimate the prevalence of chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) in Sweden, an inquiry asking for known and possible CGD cases was mailed to paediatric, internal medicine and infectious disease departments all over Sweden. The detected patients were characterized as to genetics and the clinical presentation. Twenty-one patients (belonging to 16 different families) were found, corresponding to a prevalence of approximately 1/450,000 individuals. The patients with X-linked disease, lacking a functional gp91phox protein (n = 12), comprised 57% and 43% of the patients had an autosomal recessive (AR) disease lacking p47phox (n = 7) or p67phox (n = 1), respectively. All unrelated patients with X-linked disease displayed different gene abnormalities such as point mutations predicting nonsense (n = 3), missense (n = 1) or splice site mutations (n = 2), but also a total deletion and a unique 40 base pair duplicature insertion. The patients with p47phox-deficiency showed a GT deletion at a GTGT tandem repeat, and the p67phox-deficient patient displayed a heterozygous in-frame deletion of AAG combined with a large deletion in the other allele. Three patients died during the study period, two from pseudomonas cepacia infections. Patients with X-linked disease had more frequent infections (mean of 1.7 per year), than the patients with AR inheritance (0.5 infections per year). The most common infections were dermal abscesses (n = 111), followed by lymphadenitis (n = 82) and pneumonias (n = 73). Inflammatory bowel disease-like symptoms, mimicking Crohn's disease of the colon, was seen in three CGD patients.

Interactions between the cytosolic components p47phox and p67phox of the human neutrophil NADPH oxidase that are not required for activation in the cell-free system.

Activation of the human NADPH oxidase requires the interaction of at least four cytosolic proteins and one membrane-bound heterodimeric protein. Src homology 3 (SH3) domains and their proline-rich counterstructures have been shown to play an important role in protein-protein interactions. Because it was found that the cytosolic oxidase components p67phox, p47phox, and p40phox reside in a complex in resting neutrophils, we studied the role of SH3 domains in their interaction by use of an overlay technique. Wild-type and mutated 35S-labeled p67phox and p47phox were used to detect immobilized cytosolic proteins on a protein blot. A specific association of native p67phox to blotted p47phox and blotted p40phox was found. These interactions were not disturbed by deleting the only proline-rich region (amino acids 227-231) in p67phox. We also found a specific association of native p47phox with blotted p67phox. Deletions in a putative SH3-binding region of p47phox completely abrogated the interaction with p67phox. Other results suggest that the C terminus of p47phox exposes this SH3-binding domain for interaction with p67phox. Similar results were obtained when the binding of cytosolic p67phox to wild-type or mutated p47phox were studied in solution. Interestingly, mutants of p47phox unable to bind to p67phox were fully capable of supporting superoxide production under cell-free activation conditions. We conclude that an interaction between the C-terminal proline-rich region of p47phox and the second SH3 domain of p67phox is not required for oxidase activity in the cell-free assay.