Identifying foci for safety messages targeting child injury from driving quad bikes: A critical beliefs analysis of parental beliefs in Australia.

INTRODUCTION: In Australia, between 2017-2021, 16% of quad bike fatalities involved children. Trauma statistics highlight that public awareness of the risks associated with children driving quads is required. Consistent with the Step approach to Message Design and Testing (SatMDT) and, in particular, Steps 1 and 2, this study sought to identify critical beliefs influencing parental intentions to allow their children to drive a quad bike and develop message content. The critical beliefs analysis was based on eliciting the Theory of Planned Behavior's (TPB) behavioral, normative, and control beliefs. METHODS: An online survey was distributed via parenting blogs, social media posts, and snowballing of the researchers' network list. Parents who participated (N = 71; 53F, 18 M), were aged between 25-57 years (M = 40.96, SD = 6.98), had at least one child aged between 3 to 16 years, and currently resided in Australia. RESULTS: The critical beliefs analysis identified four critical beliefs that significantly predicted parental intentions to allow their child to drive a quad bike. These beliefs included a behavioral belief (the perceived advantage that allowing their child to drive a quad bike would enable tasks to be completed), two normative beliefs (the perception that one's parents and partner would likely approve of allowing their child to drive a quad bike), and one control belief (a perceived barrier to allowing one's child to drive a quad that was associated with being aware of an increasing cultural concern around the safety of quad bikes). CONCLUSIONS: Findings contribute to insights regarding parental beliefs underpinning their intention to allow their child to drive a quad bike, an area previously lacking in research evidence. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: With child-use posing a high-risk activity for children, this study provides an important contribution that may help to inform future safety messaging targeting children's use of quad bikes.

Users' acceptance of private automated vehicles: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

INTRODUCTION: This research systematically reviewed relevant studies on users' acceptance of conditional (Level 3) to full (Level 5) automated vehicles when such vehicles are to be used privately (herein referred to as 'private automated vehicles or private AVs). METHOD: The search followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, and was undertaken in three databases: APA PsycINFO, Transport Research International Documentation, and Web of Science. Articles were required to focus on individuals' acceptance of private SAE Level 3-5 AVs. Acceptance was defined as individuals' attitudes towards or intentions and/or willingness to use AVs in the future. A total of 2,354 articles were identified in the database search. Thirty-five articles were included in the review, six of which included multiple studies and/or comparison groups. RESULTS: Most studies (n = 31) applied self-reported measures to assess user acceptance together with a range of psychosocial factors predicting such acceptance. The meta-analytic correlations revealed that perceived behavioral control, perceived benefits/usefulness, perceived ease of use, and subjective/social norms had significant positive pooled relationships with attitudes and intentions. Trust and sensation seeking also had significant positive pooled correlations with intentions, while knowledge of AVs had a significant and negative pooled correlation with intentions. Age did not show any significant pooled relationship with attitudes, intentions, or willingness. CONCLUSIONS: The findings obtained from the systematic review and meta-analysis provide support for psychosocial models to aid understanding of users' acceptance of private AVs. Practical applications: Examining acceptance of AVs after participants have experienced these vehicles on closed tracks or open roads would advance contemporary knowledge of users' intentions to use these vehicles in the future. Further, experiencing these vehicles firsthand may also help with addressing any perceived barriers reducing acceptance of future use of private AVs.

Commuting before and after COVID-19.

Major life events like COVID-19 have the potential to change how people think about and use transport systems. The COVID-19 pandemic has created an extended period of disruption in peoples' lives and could result in long-term changes towards travel attitudes, and use of transport services. There has previously been little research available on changes towards travel attitudes and use of domestic travel as a result of pandemics. To investigate the changes in attitudes to travel resulting from COVID-19 we distributed a survey to 787 respondents in Australia and New Zealand asking about car use, car sharing, public transport, and air travel before, during, and after COVID-19 travel restrictions. The results showed attitudes towards travel were negatively affected, particularly attitudes towards public transport and international air travel. Further, although respondents indicated some recovery in attitudes when asked to consider when travel restrictions were removed, they did not recover to the levels of positivity seen pre-COVID. There were slight differences between the two countries in their post-COVID attitudes, possibly due to their different experience of travel restriction. Both countries, however, may be useful as a preview for the rest of the world given the early cessation of the COVID-19 pandemic at the time of the survey.

Gender differences in the effectiveness of public education messages aimed at smartphone use among young drivers.

Objective: The main aim of this survey study was to evaluate the relative persuasiveness of three newly developed and piloted public education messages aimed at monitoring/reading social interactive technology on a smartphone among young male and female drivers. In accordance with the Step Approach to Message Design and Testing, the messages were evaluated on a number of outcome measures and also explored the influence of self-reported involvement in the target behavior.Methods: Participants (N = 152; 105 F) were aged 17 to 25 years (Mage = 20.14 years, SD = 2.35) and were randomly allocated to either an intervention (one of the three messages) or control (no message) condition. The messages in the intervention group were assessed on acceptance (i.e., behavioral intention and message effectiveness), rejection, and the third person effect (TPE) differential score (i.e., the message is perceived to be more effective for others than for themselves).Results: Hierarchical regression analyses found that, compared to males, females reported: a) lower intention to monitor/read social interactive technology on a smartphone while driving, b) lower rejection; and, c) lower TPE likelihood, irrespective of message.Conclusions: These findings suggest that young male drivers and young female drivers require different message content to be effective and support the importance of including multiple outcome measures to explain the messages' persuasive effects.

A priori acceptance of highly automated cars in Australia, France, and Sweden: A theoretically-informed investigation guided by the TPB and UTAUT.

To assess and explain finely drivers' a priori acceptance of highly automated cars, this study used the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). Further, the current study sought to extend upon previous research to assess if intentions to use highly automated cars in the future differed according to country (i.e., Australia, France, & Sweden). These three countries were selected to enable comparisons of a priori acceptance between countries of differing levels of exposure to highly automated cars. Participants (N = 1563; 62.1 % male) were recruited in Australia (n = 558), France (n = 625), and Sweden (n = 380) to complete a 20 min online questionnaire. The findings differed according to country of residence. Individuals residing in France reported significantly greater intentions to use highly automated cars when they become publicly available compared to individuals residing in Australia and in Sweden. Of the TPB constructs entered at step 1 in the hierarchical regression, attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control (capability and controllability) were significant predictors of intentions to use highly automated cars for participants residing in Australia and France. For participants residing in Sweden, only attitudes and PBC-capability were significant predictors of intentions. Of the UTAUT constructs entered at step 2, performance expectancy and effort expectancy were significant predictors of intentions for participants residing in France and only performance expectancy a significant predictor of intentions for participants residing in both Australia and Sweden. Age and gender did not add to the prediction of intentions when entered at step 3. However, pre-existing knowledge was a significant negative predictor of intentions when entered at step 3 for participants residing in Australia. Overall, the findings found some support for applying the TPB and UTAUT to assess intentions to use highly automated cars in different countries. The findings also highlight differences in a priori acceptance across countries and the factors which predict such acceptance.

Predicting the monitoring/reading of communications on a smartphone among young drivers using an extended theory of planned behaviour.

Australian drivers aged 17-25 years are overrepresented in road crashes, with many crashes resulting from smartphone use. The current study, based on a prospective design and an extended TPB framework, predicted young drivers' intentions to, and actual behaviour of, monitoring/reading social interactive technology via a smartphone while driving. An online survey at Time 1 (N = 167) assessed the TPB constructs of attitude, subjective norm and perceived behaviour control (PBC), and the additional factors of habit, mindfulness and cognitive capture. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that the TPB constructs accounted for 76.4% in the variance of young drivers' intentions. The extended model, which included habit, mindfulness and cognitive capture accounted for a significant 79% of the variance in intention, and these additional factors explained a significant amount of variance over and above the TPB constructs. The Time 2 survey (N = 95) assessed actual behaviour in relation to smartphone use in the one-week period between the Time 1 and 2 surveys. Results from a multiple regression analysis of Time 2 found that, as expected, intention was a significant predictor of the behaviour of monitoring/reading a smartphone while driving. The results support the TPB for predicting intention and actual behaviour in relation to monitoring/reading a smartphone while driving. The theoretical and practical implications of the current study are discussed as well as recommendations for future research.

The influence of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory on risk perception and intentions to speed in young male and female drivers.

This study applied the revised-Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (r-RST) to assess the influence of individual differences in young male and female drivers' risk perceptions and intentions to exceed the posted speed limit in a 60 km/hr zone. Relevant to the current study was the Behavioural Activation System (BAS; sensitive to reward), with a specific focus on the BAS processes: Reward Interest, Goal-Drive Persistence, Reward Reactivity and Impulsivity, and the Fight-Flight-Freeze System (FFFS; sensitive to punishment). It was hypothesised that young male and female drivers with stronger BAS traits would report lower risk perceptions towards speeding behaviour than those with weaker BAS traits and this risk perception would predict greater intentions to exceed the posted speed limit in 60 km/hr zones. It was further hypothesised that young male and female drivers with stronger FFFS traits would report higher risk perceptions towards speeding behaviour than those with weaker FFFS traits and this risk perception would predict lower intentions to exceed the posted speed limit in 60 km/h zones. Participants were 367 young licensed Australian drivers aged between 17 and 25 years. The results of a mediation analyses showed that females with stronger Impulsivity had low perceptions of risk and higher intentions to speed than participants with weaker Impulsivity. Further, males with stronger Goal-Drive Persistence and reported higher perceptions of risk and lower intentions to speed than participants with weaker Goal-Drive Persistence. Contrary to expectations, the BAS processes of Reward Interest and Reward Reactivity, and the FFFS were not significant. The findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of how the r-RST traits, specifically Goal-Drive Persistence and Impulsivity may influence speeding behaviour as well as the understanding of the unique influence of the four underlying BAS processes.

Selecting anti-speeding messages for roadside application.

PURPOSE: Analyze qualitative and quantitative data to determine the relative effectiveness of theoretically-developed anti-speeding messages, as judged by relatively inexperienced and experienced drivers, both for themselves as a driver, and for drivers in general. METHOD: Eight focus groups and three individual interviews were conducted. Participants initially completed a questionnaire, ranking sets of three anti-speeding messages representing each of the six components of protection motivation theory (PMT). Participants were encouraged to write down the reasons for their rankings. During group and individual facilitation sessions, the rankings and reasons for them were discussed to identify salient reasons for participants' judgments. The ranking data were analyzed quantitatively, with individual and group-based comments being analyzed thematically. RESULTS: Quantitative analyses of message pairs revealed five third-person effects (TPEs). Three messages were perceived as more relevant to drivers in general than to the participant-as-driver while two were associated with reverse TPEs, which participants perceived as more relevant to themselves-as-driver than for drivers in general. For four PMT components (rewards, self-efficacy, response efficacy, response costs), one or more messages received significantly higher rankings than one or more other messages representing the same component. Substantial variation was found within the individual and group discussion comments in respect of nearly all the messages, reflecting different driver perspectives and demographics. DISCUSSION: A general preference for shorter messages was evident, leading to a revision of most of the messages comprising the stimuli for this study. On the basis of the focus group and interview responses, consideration was given as to which messages would be recommended for a pilot field study.

Comparison of self-report and objective measures of driving behavior and road safety: A systematic review.

INTRODUCTION: This research systematically reviewed the existing literature in regards to studies which have used both self-report and objective measures of driving behavior. The objective of the current review was to evaluate disparities or similarities between self-report and objective measures of driving behavior. METHODS: Searches were undertaken in the following electronic databases, PsycINFO, PubMed, and Scopus, for peer-reviewed full-text articles that (1) focused on road safety, and (2) compared both subjective and objective measures of driving performance or driver safety. A total of 22,728 articles were identified, with 19 articles, comprising 20 studies, included as part of the review. RESULTS: The research reported herein suggested that for some behaviors (e.g., driving in stressful situations) there were similarities between self-report and objective measures while for other behaviors (e.g., sleepiness and vigilance states) there were differences between these measurement techniques. In addition, findings from some studies suggested that in-vehicle devices may be a valid measurement tool to assess driving exposure in older drivers. CONCLUSIONS: Further research is needed to examine the correspondence between self-report and objective measures of driving behavior. In particular, there is a need to increase the number of studies which compare "like with like" as it is difficult to draw comparisons when there are variations in measurement tools used. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Incorporating a range of objective and self-report measurements tools in research would help to ensure that the methods used offer the most reliable measures of assessing on-road behaviors.

Examining Women's Alcohol Consumption: The Theory of Planned Behavior and Self-Identity.

BACKGROUND: Changing trends demonstrate that women, in several economically developed countries, are drinking at higher levels than ever before. OBJECTIVE: This study applied an extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), including self-identity, to examine women's intentions to consume alcohol. METHODS: Women (N = 1069) aged 18-87 years, completed a questionnaire measuring their intentions to engage in binge drinking and frequent drinking. As research indicates that drinking trends are a function of age, hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted separately for four age groups (18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45, and above). RESULTS: Results supported the predictive utility of the TPB, (particularly Attitudes and Perceived Behavioral Control). Across the age groups, the final models explained between 48% and 62% of the variance in intentions to binge drink and between 33% and 51% of the variance in intentions to drink frequently. Subjective norms were significant associated with the youngest group (18-24 years) and the oldest group (45+ years). Self-identity was significantly associated with intentions to binge drink in younger women. CONCLUSIONS: Implications are discussed with regard to the predictive utility of an extended TPB to include self-identity in determining women's intentions to consume alcohol. Key factors that influence women's decisions to engage in risky drinking behaviors have been underlined to inform future interventions.

Young females' attention toward road safety images: An ERP study of the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined whether reward and punishment sensitivities, as conceptualized by Gray and McNaughton's revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST), influenced young female drivers' attention toward a series of positive and negative antispeeding advertisement images. Young females' increasing crash risk is associated with their engagement in risky behaviors, which, in turn, has been associated with a stronger behavioral approach system (BAS; sensitive to rewards). It was predicted that individuals with a stronger BAS would elicit larger N100 and N200 mean amplitudes (reflecting greater attention) toward the positive images. Similar associations were predicted in relation to the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS; sensitive to punishments) for negative images. METHOD: Twenty-four female drivers (17-25 years; final N = 16) completed Corr-Cooper's RST-Personality Questionnaire, prior to undergoing an event-related potential computerized visual task (i.e., oddball paradigm) that included positive, negative, and neutral images as targets against checkerboard image distractors. RESULTS: Contrary to expectations, individuals with a stronger BAS (Reward Reactivity and Impulsivity) demonstrated significantly larger N200 mean amplitudes at the Cz electrode site on presentation of the negative images than those with a weaker BAS. No other significant RST effects were found. CONCLUSIONS: These findings provide some preliminary objective support for the use of negative emotion-based road safety advertisements for young females. Further, this study provides support for using psychophysiological measures to enhance understanding of traffic injury persuasion.

Evaluating public education messages aimed at monitoring and responding to social interactive technology on smartphones among young drivers.

Young drivers are more likely than any other age group to access social interactive technology (e.g., Facebook, E-mail) on a smartphone while driving. The current study formed part of a larger investigation and was guided by The Step Approach to Message Design and Testing (SatMDT) to evaluate the relative effectiveness of three different public education messages aimed at reducing smartphone use among young drivers. The messages were each adapted to the specific behaviours of monitoring/reading and responding to social interactive technology on smartphones. Participants (n=288; 199F, 89M) were drivers aged 17-25 years who resided in the Australian state of Queensland. Message acceptance (i.e., intention and effectiveness) and message rejection were both assessed using a self-report survey. Multivariate analyses found that, overall, the messages targeting monitoring/reading behaviour were considered more effective than those targeting responding behaviour. The message that challenged the underlying motivation that believing you are a good driver makes it easier to monitor/read social interactive technology while driving was considered particularly effective by young male drivers.

The use of neurocognitive methods in assessing health communication messages: A systematic review.

We review 20 studies that examined persuasive processing and outcomes of health messages using neurocognitive measures. The results suggest that cognitive processes and neural activity in regions thought to reflect self-related processing may be more prominent in the persuasive process of self-relevant messages. Furthermore, activity in the medial prefrontal cortex, the superior temporal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus were identified as predictors of message effectiveness, with the medial prefrontal cortex accounting for additional variance in behaviour change beyond that accounted for by self-report measures. Incorporating neurocognitive measures may provide a more comprehensive understanding of the processing and outcomes of health messages.

Young drivers' engagement with social interactive technology on their smartphone: Critical beliefs to target in public education messages.

The current study forms part of a larger study based on the Step Approach to Message Design and Testing (SatMDT), a new and innovative framework designed to guide the development and evaluation of health communication messages, including road safety messages. This four step framework is based on several theories, including the Theory of Planned Behaviour. The current study followed steps one and two of the SatMDT framework and utilised a quantitative survey to validate salient beliefs (behavioural, normative, and control) about initiating, monitoring/reading, and responding to social interactive technology on smartphones by N=114 (88F, 26M) young drivers aged 17-25 years. These beliefs had been elicited in a prior in-depth qualitative study. A subsequent critical beliefs analysis identified seven beliefs as potential targets for public education messages, including, 'slow-moving traffic' (control belief - facilitator) for both monitoring/reading and responding behaviours; 'feeling at ease that you had received an expected communication' (behavioural belief -advantage) for monitoring/reading behaviour; and 'friends/peers more likely to approve' (normative belief) for responding behaviour. Potential message content targeting these seven critical beliefs is discussed in accordance with the SatMDT.

Beliefs underlying Women's intentions to consume alcohol.

BACKGROUND: Changing trends demonstrate that women, in a number of economically-developed countries, are drinking at higher levels than ever before. Exploring key targets for intervention, this study examined the extent to which underlying beliefs in relation to alcohol consumption predicted intentions to drink in three different ways (i.e. low risk drinking, frequent drinking and binge drinking). METHODS: Utilizing a prospective design survey, women (N = 1069), aged 18-87 years, completed a questionnaire measuring their beliefs and intentions regarding alcohol consumption. Then, two weeks later, 845 of the original sample, completed a follow-up questionnaire reporting their engagement in the drinking behaviors. A mixed design ANOVA was conducted to examine potential differences between women of different age groups (18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55 years and above) and their intentions to engage in the three different drinking behaviors. Based upon The Theory of Planned Behavior, critical beliefs analyses were carried out to identify key determinants underlying intentions to engage in the three different drinking behaviors. RESULTS: Significant effects of age were found in relation to frequent and binge drinking. The critical beliefs analyses revealed that a number of behavioral, control and normative beliefs were significant predictors of intentions. These beliefs varied according to age group and drinking behavior. CONCLUSIONS: Previously unidentified key factors that influence women's decisions to drink in certain ways have been established. Overall, future interventions and public policy may be better tailored so as to address specific age groups and drinking behaviors.

A Systematic Review of Intervening to Prevent Driving While Intoxicated: The Problem of Driving While Intoxicated (DWI).

BACKGROUND: Driving while intoxicated (DWI) is a significant public health issue. The likelihood someone will intervene to prevent DWI is affected by the characteristics of the individuals and the context of the potential driving scenario. Understanding such contexts may help tailor public health messages to promote intervening from those who are nearby to an intoxicated driver. OBJECTIVE: This systematic review investigates the behavior of those close to an intoxicated driver and factors associated with increasing the likelihood they will intervene in situations where driving while impaired may be likely. The review of the literature is guided by an orienting framework, namely the classic social psychology theory of decision-making proposed by Latané and Darley. RESULTS: Drawing upon this framework, the review examines the extent to which research has focused on factors which influence whether or not an individual identifies a need to intervene and identifies a seriously dangerous situation. In addition, consideration is given to perceived personal responsibility. The final two components of the model are then discussed; the perceived skill an individual who may intervene has (in their ability to intervene) and their actual enactment of the intervening behavior. Conclusions and Importance: Drawing upon such a well-considered theoretical framework, this review provides guidance on key components likely to assist in the development of targeted, more effective public education messages and campaigns that dissuade individuals from drinking and then driving.

Key beliefs influencing young drivers' engagement with social interactive technology on their smartphones: A qualitative study.

OBJECTIVE: The main aim of this study was to identify young drivers' underlying beliefs (i.e., behavioral, normative, and control) regarding initiating, monitoring/reading, and responding to social interactive technology (i.e., functions on a Smartphone that allow the user to communicate with other people). METHOD: This qualitative study was a beliefs elicitation study in accordance with the theory of planned behavior and sought to elicit young drivers' behavioral (i.e., advantages, disadvantages), normative (i.e., who approves, who disapproves), and control beliefs (i.e., barriers, facilitators) that underpin social interactive technology use while driving. Young drivers (N = 26) aged 17 to 25 years took part in an interview or focus group discussion. RESULTS: Though differences emerged between the 3 behaviors of initiating, monitoring/reading, and responding for each of the behavioral, normative, and control belief categories, the strongest distinction was within the behavioral beliefs category (e.g., communicating with the person that they were on the way to meet was an advantage of initiating; being able to determine whether to respond was an advantage of monitoring/reading; and communicating with important people was an advantage of responding). Normative beliefs were similar for initiating and responding behaviors (e.g., friends and peers more likely to approve than other groups) and differences emerged for monitoring/reading (e.g., parents were more likely to approve of this behavior than initiating and responding). For control beliefs, there were differences between the beliefs regarding facilitators of these behaviors (e.g., familiar roads and conditions facilitated initiating; having audible notifications of an incoming communication facilitated monitoring/reading; and receiving a communication of immediate importance facilitated responding); however, the control beliefs that presented barriers were consistent across the 3 behaviors (e.g., difficult traffic/road conditions). CONCLUSION: The current study provides an important addition to the extant literature and supports emerging research that suggests that initiating, monitoring/reading, and responding may indeed be distinct behaviors with different underlying motivations.

The Step approach to Message Design and Testing (SatMDT): A conceptual framework to guide the development and evaluation of persuasive health messages.

This paper provides an important and timely overview of a conceptual framework designed to assist with the development of message content, as well as the evaluation, of persuasive health messages. While an earlier version of this framework was presented in a prior publication by the authors in 2009, important refinements to the framework have seen it evolve in recent years, warranting the need for an updated review. This paper outlines the Step approach to Message Design and Testing (or SatMDT) in accordance with the theoretical evidence which underpins, as well as empirical evidence which demonstrates the relevance and feasibility of, each of the framework's steps. The development and testing of the framework have thus far been based exclusively within the road safety advertising context; however, the view expressed herein is that the framework may have broader appeal and application to the health persuasion context.

Young drivers' responses to anti-speeding advertisements: Comparison of self-report and objective measures of persuasive processing and outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: Self-report measures are typically used to assess the effectiveness of road safety advertisements. However, psychophysiological measures of persuasive processing (i.e., skin conductance response [SCR]) and objective driving measures of persuasive outcomes (i.e., in-vehicle Global Positioning System [GPS] devices) may provide further insights into the effectiveness of these advertisements. This study aimed to explore the persuasive processing and outcomes of 2 anti-speeding advertisements by incorporating both self-report and objective measures of speeding behavior. In addition, this study aimed to compare the findings derived from these different measurement approaches. METHODS: Young drivers (N = 20, M age = 21.01 years) viewed either a positive or negative emotion-based anti-speeding television advertisement. While viewing the advertisement, SCR activity was measured to assess ad-evoked arousal responses. The RoadScout GPS device was then installed in participants' vehicles for 1 week to measure on-road speed-related driving behavior. Self-report measures assessed persuasive processing (emotional and arousal responses) and actual driving behavior. RESULTS: There was general correspondence between the self-report measures of arousal and the SCR and between the self-report measure of actual driving behavior and the objective driving data (as assessed via the GPS devices). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides insights into how psychophysiological and GPS devices could be used as objective measures in conjunction with self-report measures to further understand the persuasive processes and outcomes of emotion-based anti-speeding advertisements.

Designing and evaluating a persuasive child restraint television commercial.

OBJECTIVE: Relatively high rates of child restraint inappropriate use and misuse and faults in the installation of restraints have suggested a crucial need for public education messages to raise parental awareness of the need to use restraints correctly. This project involved the devising and pilot testing of message concepts, filming of a television advertisement (the TVC), and the evaluation of the TVC. This article focuses specifically upon the evaluation of the TVC. The development and evaluation of the TVC were guided by an extended theory of planned behavior that included the standard constructs of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control as well as the additional constructs of group norms and descriptive norms. The study also explored the extent to which parents with low and high intentions to self-check restraints differed on salient beliefs regarding the behavior. METHODS: An online survey of parents (N = 384) was conducted where parents were randomly assigned to either the intervention group (n = 161), and therefore viewed the advertisement within the survey, or the control group (n = 223), and therefore did not view the advertisement. RESULTS: Following a one-off exposure to the TVC, the results indicated that, although not a significant difference, parents in the intervention group reported stronger intentions (M = 4.43, SD = 0.74) to self-check restraints than parents in the control group (M = 4.18, SD = 0.86). In addition, parents in the intervention group (M = 4.59, SD = 0.47) reported significantly higher levels of perceived behavioral control than parents in the control group (M = 4.40, SD = 0.73). The regression results revealed that, for parents in the intervention group, attitudes and group norms were significant predictors of parental intentions to self-check their child restraint. Finally, the exploratory analyses of parental beliefs suggested that those parents with low intentions to self-check child restraints were significantly more likely than high intenders to agree that they did not have enough time to check restraints or that having a child in a restraint is more important than checking the installation of the restraint. CONCLUSION: Overall, the findings provide some support for the persuasiveness of the child restraint TVC and provide insight into the factors influencing reported parental intentions as well as salient beliefs underpinning self-checking of restraints. Interventions that attempt to increase parental perceptions of the importance of self-checking restraints regularly and brevity of the time involved in doing so may be effective.