Evidence of synergism among three genetic variants in a patient with LMNA-related lipodystrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis leading to a remarkable nuclear phenotype.

Neurodegenerative diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), can be clinically heterogeneous which may be explained by the co-inheritance of multiple genetic variants that modify the clinical course. In this study we examine variants in three genes in a family with one individual presenting with ALS and lipodystrophy. Sequencing revealed a p.Gly602Ser variant in LMNA, and two additional variants, one each in SETX (g.intron10-13delCTT) and FUS (p.Gly167_Gly168del). These latter genes have been linked to ALS. All family members were genotyped and each variant, and each combination of variants detected, were functionally evaluated in vitro regarding effects on cell survival, expression patterns and cellular phenotype. Muscle biopsy retrieved from the individual with ALS showed leakage of chromatin from the nucleus, a phenotype that was recapitulated in vitro with expression of all three variants simultaneously. Individually expressed variants gave cellular phenotypes there were unremarkable. Interestingly the FUS variant appears to be protective against the effects of the SETX and the LMNA variants on cell viability and may indicate loss of interaction of FUS with SETX and/or R-loops. We conclude that these findings support genetic modifications as an explanation of the clinical heterogeneity observed in human disease.

RNA and Protein Interactors with TDP-43 in Human Spinal-Cord Lysates in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis.

The TAR DNA-binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) is a dual function RNA- and DNA-binding protein with varied cellular functions. In degenerating motor neurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), TDP-43 relocalizes from the nucleus to the cytosol, where it is sequestered into inclusions. It is likely that the pathogenic role of TDP-43 in ALS can involve either a gain or a loss of function, depending on the nature of its RNA or protein interactor. However, while TDP-43 binding partners have been identified in a range of model systems and from the human brain, interactors from human spinal-cord tissue have not. In this study, we have characterized both protein and RNA TDP-43 interactors from neuropathologically normal (control) and ALS-affected ventral lumbar spinal cord, including sporadic ALS (sALS) and familial cases harboring either a A4T mutant SOD1 or a 3' UTR *c.41G>A mutant FUS/TLS or expressing pathological c9orf72 expanded repeats. RNA interactors with TDP-43 were similar between the control and ALS spinal cords examined regardless of genotype. In contrast, protein interactors with TDP-43 did demonstrate differences, with the sALS and mtSOD1 harboring cases examined differing from the protein interactors identified in the FUS 3' UTR mutation and c9orf72 repeat-positive cases.

Thr175-phosphorylated tau induces pathologic fibril formation via GSK3ß-mediated phosphorylation of Thr231 in vitro.

We have previously shown that amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with cognitive impairment can be characterized by pathologic inclusions of microtubule-associated protein tau (tau) phosphorylated at Thr(175) (pThr(175)) in association with GSK3ß activation. We have now examined whether pThr(175) induces GSK3ß activation and whether this leads to pathologic fibril formation through Thr(231) phosphorylation. Seventy-two hours after transfection of Neuro2A cells with pseudophosphorylated green fluorescent protein-tagged 2N4R tau (Thr(175)Asp), phosphorylated kinase glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (active GSK3ß) levels were significantly increased as was pathologic fibril formation and cell death. Treatment with each of 4 GSK3ß inhibitors or small hairpin RNA knockdown of GSK3ß abolished fibril formation and prevented cell death. Inhibition of Thr(231) phosphorylation (Thr(231)Ala) prevented pathologic tau fibril formation, regardless of Thr(175) state, whereas Thr(231)Asp (pseudophosphorylated at Thr(231)) developed pathologic tau fibrils. Ser(235) mutations did not affect fibril formation, indicating an unprimed mechanism of Thr(231) phosphorylation. These findings suggest a mechanism of tau pathology by which pThr(175) induces GSK3ß phosphorylation of Thr(231) leading to fibril formation, indicating a potential therapeutic avenue for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with cognitive impairment.

Human low molecular weight neurofilament (NFL) mRNA interacts with a predicted p190RhoGEF homologue (RGNEF) in humans.

In the mouse, p190RhoGEF is a low molecular weight neurofilament (NFL) mRNA stability factor that is involved in NF aggregate formation in neurons. A human homologue of this protein has not been described. Our objective was to identify a human homologue of p190RhoGEF, and to determine its interaction with human NFL mRNA. We used sequence homology searches to predict a human homologue (RGNEF), and RT-PCR to determine the expression of mRNA in ALS and neuropathologically normal control tissues. Gel shift assays determined the interaction of RGNEF with human NFL mRNA in vitro, while IP-RT-PCR and gel shift assays were used to confirm the interaction in tissue lysates. We determined that RGNEF is a human homologue of p190RhoGEF, and that its RNA is expressed in both brain and spinal cord. While RGNEF and NFL mRNA interact directly in vitro, interestingly they only appear to interact in ALS lysates and not in controls. These data add another player to the family of NFL mRNA stability regulators, and raise the intriguing possibility that the mechanism by which p190RhoGEF contributes to murine neuronal NF aggregate formation may be important to human ALS NF aggregate formation.

Tar DNA binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43), 14-3-3 proteins and copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) interact to modulate NFL mRNA stability. Implications for altered RNA processing in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurological disease characterized by progressive motor neuron degeneration in association with neurofilament (NF) aggregate formation. This process is accompanied by an alteration in the stoichiometry of NF subunit protein expression such that the steady state levels of the low molecular weight NF (NFL) mRNA levels are selectively suppressed. We have previously shown that each of TDP-43, 14-3-3 and mutant SOD1 can function as NFL mRNA 3'UTR binding proteins that directly affect the stability of NFL transcripts. In this study, we demonstrate that the interaction of TDP-43 with the NFL mRNA 3' UTR involves ribonucleotide (UG) motifs present on stem loops of the 3'UTR as well as the RRM1 and RRM2 motifs of TDP-43. Ex vivo, TDP-43, 14-3-3 and SOD1 proteins interact to modulate NFL mRNA stability, although in vivo, only TDP-43 and either mutant or wild-type SOD1 co-localize in ALS motor neurons. TDP-43 was observed to co-localize to RNA transport granules (Staufen immunoreactive) in both control and ALS spinal motor neurons. In contrast, both stress granules (TIA-1 immunoreactive) and processing bodies (P-bodies; XRN-1 immunoreactive) were more prevalent in ALS motor neurons than in controls and demonstrated strong co-localization with TDP-43. Using RNA-IP-PCR, we further demonstrate that NFL mRNA is preferentially sequestered to both stress granules and P-bodies in ALS. These data suggest that NFL mRNA processing is fundamentally altered in ALS spinal motor neurons to favour compartmentalization within both stress granules and P-bodies, and that TDP-43 plays a fundamental role in this process.

The complement factor C5a receptor is upregulated in NFL-/- mouse motor neurons.

In NFL-/- mice, a model of motor neuron degeneration in ALS, degenerating spinal motor neurons express high levels of the receptor for the C5a anaphylatoxin (C5aR) early in the disease process. C5a is a potent in vitro neurotoxin for both Neuro2A and NGF-differentiated PC12 cells. While no interaction was observed between glutamate and C5a, both C5a and kainate upregulated the expression of activated C5aR. C5aR expression was increased in motor neurons in ALS. This data suggests that the early upregulation of C5aR may contribute to motor neuron damage that potentiates excitotoxicity in ALS.

Tau phosphorylation at threonine-175 leads to fibril formation and enhanced cell death: implications for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with cognitive impairment.

Although amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) can be associated with cognitive impairment (ALSci) as a reflection of frontotemporal lobar degeneration, the basis of this process is unknown. The observation of neuronal and extraneuronal tau deposition in ALSci in addition to a unique tau phosphorylation at Thr175 has suggested that ALSci can be associated with alterations in tau metabolism. We have examined the association between phosphorylation at Thr175 and tau fibril formation. Both soluble and insoluble tau was purified from control, patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), ALS without cognitive impairment, and ALSci and the tendency to fibril formation assayed ex vivo using the thioflavin S fluorescence assay. The extent of fibril formation was significantly greater in tau derived from ALSci, with ALS-derived tau being intermediate between control and AD-derived tau. Using both Neuro2A and human embryonic kidney (HEK293T) cells, we expressed full-length tau constructs harboring either a pseudophosphorylation at Thr175 (Thr175-Asp-tau), inhibition of Thr175 phosphorylation (Thr175-Ala-tau) or intact tau (wild-type tau). Both tau fibril formation and cell death were significantly enhanced in the presence of Thr175-Asp-tau, regardless of the tau isoform, suggesting that phosphorylation of Thr175 is associated with tau fibril formation in ALSci.

Divergent patterns of cytosolic TDP-43 and neuronal progranulin expression following axotomy: implications for TDP-43 in the physiological response to neuronal injury.

We have performed sciatic axotomies in adult C57BL/6 mice and observed TDP-43 and progranulin (PGRN) expression patterns over 28 days. TDP-43 expression was markedly upregulated in axotomized motor neurons, with prominent cytosolic immunoreactivity becoming maximal by post-injury day 7 and returning to baseline levels by post-injury day 28. Increased TDP-43 expression was confirmed by western blot. TDP-43 mRNA expression was also increased. This was inversely correlated with neuronal PGRN expression which was clearly reduced by day 7 with a return to baseline by post-injury day 28. In contrast, microglial PGRN expression was dramatically increased, and correlated with the inflammatory response to axotomy. Cytosolic TDP-43 colocalized with Staufen and TIA-1, markers for RNA transport and stress granules respectively. We did not observe colocalization of TDP-43 or PGRN with degradative granules (P-bodies) or activated caspase 3. These results indicate that TDP-43 expression is altered in response to neuronal injury and that normal expression is restored following recovery. These findings suggest that the upregulation of TDP-43 expression with prominent cytosolic localization in motor neurons injured by degenerative processes such as ALS may actually represent an appropriate response to neuronal injury.

Upregulation of GSK3beta expression in frontal and temporal cortex in ALS with cognitive impairment (ALSci).

The deposition of highly phosphorylated microtubule-associated tau protein has been observed in ALS with cognitive impairment (ALSci). In these studies, we have examined whether the expression of two candidate protein kinases for mediating tau hyperphosphorylation (GSK3beta or CDK5) are also altered. The expression of GSK, CDK and p25/p35 was assayed in human frontal, hippocampal, cerebellar, cervical (dorsal and ventral) and lumbar (dorsal and ventral) tissue from neurologically intact control (5), ALS (5) or ALSci (5) patients using RT-PCR, Western blot or immunohistochemistry. To assess GSK-3beta activity, we examined GSK3beta, phospho-GSK3beta and phospho-beta-catenin expression. Expression levels relative to that of beta-actin were compared by ANOVA. The expression of GSK, GSK3beta and phospho-GSK3beta was increased in both ALS and ALSci compared to that of the control. This was accompanied by an increased expression of phospho-beta-catenin. No significant difference between control, ALS or ALSci was observed with respect to the expression of CDK5 or p25/p35. Both GSK3beta and phospho-GSK3beta immunoreactive neurons were mainly located in layer II and layer III in the frontal cortex and in layer II in the hippocampus. This was consistent with the previously described distribution of hyperphosphorylated tau bearing neurons in ALS and ALSci. These data suggest that GSK3beta expression is upregulated in ALS and ALSci and that GSK3beta activation is associated with the intraneuronal deposition of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. This supports the potential role for GSK3beta as a therapeutic target in ALS.

TDP43 is a human low molecular weight neurofilament (hNFL) mRNA-binding protein.

The human TAR DNA-binding protein (TDP43) colocalizes with ubiquitinated inclusions in motor neurons in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). TDP43 is both a DNA-binding protein with a nuclear export sequence that interacts with (TG)nTm elements in DNA and an RNA-binding protein that interacts with (UG)(6-12) motifs in single-stranded RNA. In control motor neurons, TDP43 was almost exclusively nuclear, whereas in ALS spinal motor neurons, TDP43 was predominantly localized to the cytosol and not the nucleus. TDP43 was observed as punctuate immunoreactivity and as dense skeins, with and without ubiquitinization. We observed that TDP43 stabilizes the human low molecular weight (hNFL) mRNA through a direct interaction with the 3'UTR. TDP43 is a unique hNFL mRNA-binding protein that is altered in its somatotopic localization in ALS spinal motor neurons and potentially contributes to the formation of NF aggregates in ALS through alterations in NF stoichiometry.

Calcium mediated excitotoxicity in neurofilament aggregate-bearing neurons in vitro is NMDA receptor dependant.

We have previously shown that the co-localization of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) with neurofilament (NF) aggregates in motor neurons derived from transgenic mice over-expressing the human low molecular weight NF protein (hNFL+/+) is associated with a deregulation of calcium influx via the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, resulting in apoptosis. Because the absence of the GluR2 subunit of the alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoazolepropionic acid (AMPA) receptor confers calcium permeability and has been implicated in the process of excitotoxicity in ALS, we have examined the role of the AMPA receptor in this model. GluR2 protein expression and mRNA were examined in hNFL+/+ and wild-type motor neurons (wt). Live cell calcium imaging was performed using Oregon-Green Bapta and Fura-2 calcium dyes. For apoptotic studies, neurons were treated with glutamate, with or without glutamate receptor antagonists [6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2, 3-dione (CNQX) or (+)-5-methyl-10, 11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine maleate (MK-801)] and examined for active caspase-3 or phospholipid inversion. We observed that although both GluR2 mRNA and protein levels were decreased in hNFL+/+ motor neurons compared to wt, there was no appreciable calcium influx via the AMPA receptor. These studies demonstrate that calcium mediated excitotoxicity in NF aggregate-bearing neurons is NMDA receptor dependant.

14-3-3 protein binds to the low molecular weight neurofilament (NFL) mRNA 3' UTR.

We have previously reported that altered stability of low molecular weight neurofilament (NFL) mRNA in lumbar spinal cord homogenates in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is associated with altered expression of trans-acting 3' UTR mRNA binding proteins. We have identified two hexanucleotide motifs as the main cis elements and, using LC/MS/MS of peptide digests of NFL 3' UTR interacting proteins from human spinal cord, observed that 14-3-3 proteins interact with these motifs. 14-3-3 beta, zeta, tau, gamma, and eta isoforms were found to be expressed in human spinal cord. Each isoform was expressed in vitro and shown to interact with NFL 3' UTR mRNA. Mutation of one or both motifs resulted in decreased 14-3-3 interaction, changes in predicted mRNA structure or alteration in stability of the mRNA. These data show a novel interaction for 14-3-3 with NFL mRNA, and suggests that 14-3-3 may play a role in regulating NFL mRNA stability.

Neuronal tissue-specific ribonucleoprotein complex formation on SOD1 mRNA: alterations by ALS SOD1 mutations.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal disease of unknown etiology. Mutations in copper/zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) are the most commonly associated genetic abnormality. Given that SOD1 is ubiquitously expressed, the exclusive vulnerability of motor neurons is one of the most puzzling issues in ALS research. We here report that wild-type SOD1 mRNA forms ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes with protein homogenates of neuronal tissue but not with homogenates of non-neuronal tissues. 3' Untranslated region of SOD1 mRNA-dependent RNP complexes functioned to stabilize SOD1 mRNA. Moreover, SOD1 mRNAs harboring ALS-associated mutations, including silent mutations, were deficient in forming RNP complexes. In contrast, SOD1 mRNAs harboring artificial mutations, not known to be associated with ALS, demonstrated preserved RNP complex formation. This paper reports RNP complex formation on SOD1 mRNA as a neuronal tissue-specific and ALS-associated mutation sensitive feature.

Temporal profiles of neuronal degeneration, glial proliferation, and cell death in hNFL(+/+) and NFL(-/-) mice.

Neurofilament (NF) aggregate formation within motor neurons is a pathological hallmark of both the sporadic and familial forms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). The relationship between aggregate formation and both microglial and astrocytic proliferation, as well as additional neuropathological features of ALS, is unknown. To examine this, we have used transgenic mice that develop NF aggregates, through either a lack of the low-molecular-weight NF subunit [NFL (-/-)] or the overexpression of human NFL [hNFL (+/+)]. Transgenic and wild-type C57bl/6 mice were examined from 1 month to 18 months of age, and the temporal pattern of motor neuron degeneration, microglial and astrocytic proliferation, and heat shock protein-70 (HSP-70) expression characterized. We observed three overlapping phases in both transgenic mice, including transient aggregate formation, reactive microgliosis, and progressive motor neuron loss. However, only NFL (-/-) mice demonstrated significant astrogliosis and HSP-70 upregulation in both motor neurons and astrocytes. These in vivo models suggest that the development of NF aggregates in motor neurons leads to motor neuron death, but that the interaction between the degenerating motor neurons and the adjacent non-neuronal cells may differ significantly depending on the etiology of the NF aggregate itself.

Mutant copper-zinc superoxide dismutase binds to and destabilizes human low molecular weight neurofilament mRNA.

The mechanism by which mutated copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (SOD1) causes familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is believed to involve an adverse gain of function, independent of the physiological antioxidant enzymatic properties of SOD1. In this study, we have observed that mutant SOD1 (G41S, G85A, and G93A) but not the wild type significantly reduced the stability of the low molecular weight neurofilament mRNA in a dosage-dependent manner. We have also demonstrated that mutant SOD1 but not the wild type bound directly to the neurofilament mRNA 3'-untranslated region and that the binding was necessary to induce mRNA destabilization. These observations provide an explanation for a novel gain of function in which mutant SOD1 expression in motor neurons alters an intermediate filament protein expression.

Intermediate filament steady-state mRNA levels in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

We have examined the steady-state levels of intermediate filament mRNA in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis using the RNAse protection assay (NFL, NFM, NFH; corrected against GAPDH) or by PCR (peripherin, alpha-internexin, nestin, and vimentin; corrected against beta-actin). Significant elevations of NFL and peripherin mRNA levels were observed within the ALS cervical and lumbar spinal cord, with all other IF mRNA levels being comparable between control and ALS cases. These findings suggest that disturbances in both NFL and peripherin expression, independently known to contribute to the generation of motor neuron dysfunction in transgenic mice, are evident in ALS.

Microtubule-associated tau protein positive neuronal and glial inclusions in ALS.

BACKGROUND: The authors compared tau protein deposition in the frontal cortex of patients with cognitive impairment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALSci) (n = 6), cognitively intact patients with ALS (n = 6), and age-matched controls (n = 6) in order to determine the pathologic substrate of ALSci. METHODS: Archival paraffin-embedded tissue was examined using Gallyas staining and immunostaining for tau-1 (phosphorylation-dependent tau epitope), tau-2 (phosphorylation independent), Alzheimer-specific tau phosphoepitopes (AT 8; ser(396) phosphorylation), beta-amyloid, glial fibrillary acid protein, SMI 31 (recognizing phosphorylated NFH), alpha-synuclein, or ubiquitin. RESULTS: Tau immunoreactive astrocytic and dense neuronal inclusions were found in both ALS and ALSci, although to a greater extent in ALSci. Superficial linear spongiosis and Gallyas-positive intraneuronal aggregates, immunoreactive with tau-1 and AT 8 but rarely to ser(396) tau, were unique to ALSci. Dense extracellular aggregates were observed by both Gallyas staining and tau-1 immunostaining. Tufted degenerating astrocytes containing tau-1 and AT 8 immunoreactive aggregates and, rarely, dense Gallyas positive neuritic plaques immunoreactive with tau-1 and AT 8, but not with ser(396) tau or beta-amyloid, were observed in ALSci. Tau positive glial coiled bodies were observed in the deep cortical layers and adjacent subcortical white matter in ALSci. Although 3R and 4R tau mRNA isoforms were expressed to similar levels in the frontal cortex of all cases, the total amount of tau mRNA was increased in both ALS and ALSci. Both gray and white matter soluble tau protein expression was similar among control, ALS, and ALSci cases. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive dysfunction in ALS may reflect abnormal tau protein metabolism.

Selective loss of trans-acting instability determinants of neurofilament mRNA in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis spinal cord.

Neurofilament (NF) aggregates in motor neurons are a key neuropathological feature of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). We have previously observed an alteration in the stoichiometry of NF subunit steady state mRNA levels in ALS spinal motor neurons using in situ hybridization and proposed that this led to aggregate formation. We have now examined the levels of NF mRNA in whole tissue homogenates of spinal cord using the RNase protection assay and real time reverse transcriptase-PCR and observed significant elevations of NF mRNA level in ALS. Compared with age-matched control, we observed a greater stability of heterogeneously expressed NFL mRNA in the presence of ALS spinal cord homogenates. Heat denaturing or protease K digestion of the control homogenates increased the stability of the NFL mRNA to levels observed in ALS homogenate. Increased NFL mRNA stability was also induced by increasing the percentage of ALS homogenate in an admixture of control and ALS homogenates. These observations suggest the presence of trans-acting NFL mRNA-destabilizing elements in control but not in ALS spinal cord homogenates. This was confirmed in gel retardation assays. We also observed that the destabilizing elements interact with the 3'-untranslated region of NFL mRNA. These findings suggest that the trans-acting NFL-destabilizing elements are selectively suppressed in ALS homogenates, resulting in an increased stability and level of NFL mRNA.