Making sense of diabetes medication decisions: a mixed methods cluster randomized trial using a conversation aid intervention.

PURPOSE: To determine the effectiveness of a shared decision-making (SDM) tool versus guideline-informed usual care in translating evidence into primary care, and to explore how use of the tool changed patient perspectives about diabetes medication decision making. METHODS: In this mixed methods multicenter cluster randomized trial, we included patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and their primary care clinicians. We compared usual care with or without a within-encounter SDM conversation aid. We assessed participant-reported decisions made and quality of SDM (knowledge, satisfaction, and decisional conflict), clinical outcomes, adherence, and observer-based patient involvement in decision-making (OPTION12-scale). We used semi-structured interviews with patients to understand their perspectives. RESULTS: We enrolled 350 patients and 99 clinicians from 20 practices and interviewed 26 patients. Use of the conversation aid increased post-encounter patient knowledge (correct answers, 52% vs. 45%, p = 0.02) and clinician involvement of patients (Mean between-arm difference in OPTION12, 7.3 (95% CI 3, 12); p = 0.003). There were no between-arm differences in treatment choice, patient or clinician satisfaction, encounter length, medication adherence, or glycemic control. Qualitative analyses highlighted differences in how clinicians involved patients in decision making, with intervention patients noting how clinicians guided them through conversations using factors important to them. CONCLUSIONS: Using an SDM conversation aid improved patient knowledge and involvement in SDM without impacting treatment choice, encounter length, medication adherence or improved diabetes control in patients with type 2 diabetes. Future interventions may need to focus specifically on patients with signs of poor treatment fit. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrial.gov: NCT01502891.

Perspectives of Patients with Diverse Disabilities Regarding Healthcare Accommodations to Promote Healthcare Equity: a Qualitative Study.

BACKGROUND: Patients with disabilities often require healthcare accommodations in order to access high-quality, equitable healthcare services. While attention has been paid to accommodation needs in specific disability populations, limited research to date has explored healthcare accommodations that cross-cut diverse disability populations. OBJECTIVE: To identify a deeper understanding regarding accommodations in healthcare settings that could apply across disability populations and promote equitable healthcare. DESIGN: We conducted qualitative focus groups with patients with disabilities and caregivers to understand their experiences and preferences for healthcare accommodations. PARTICIPANTS: We recruited patients and caregivers across all major disability categories to participate in focus groups. Participants were recruited through advocacy organizations and healthcare settings in Southeastern Minnesota. APPROACH: A total of eight focus groups were conducted with 56 participants. Participants described their healthcare experiences and desires for healthcare accommodations. The multidisciplinary research team recorded, transcribed verbatim, and coded all focus groups. The team thematically coded transcripts using content analysis within and across focus groups to identify major themes. KEY RESULTS: Patients identified four challenges and corresponding steps healthcare team could take to promote equitable care: (1) consistent documentation of disabilities and needed accommodations in the medical record; (2) allowance for accommodations to the environment, including adapting physical space, physical structures, and scheduling and rooming processes; (3) provide accommodations for administrative tasks, such as completing paper or electronic forms; and (4) adapt communication during interactions, such as speaking slower or using terms that patients can easily understand. CONCLUSION: These identified themes represent specific opportunities for healthcare teams to effectively provide accessible care to patients with disabilities. Many of the accommodations require minimal financial investment, but did require behavioral changes by the healthcare team to ensure equitable healthcare.

Development of Patient-Centered Disability Status Questions to Address Equity in Care.

BACKGROUND: Patients with disabilities experience disparities in accessing and receiving high-quality health care services as compared to patients without disabilities. To address the disparities, health care organizations need to identify which of their patients have disabilities to track quality of care and provide appropriate health care accommodations. To date, no evidence-based sets of disability questions exist that serve these purposes. A study was conducted to identify patient-centered disability questions for health care organizations to determine which patients require health care accommodations and to track the quality of care experienced by patients with disabilities. METHODS: In the first of three phases, a focus group with patients and caregivers (N = 54) and interviews with providers (N = 15) were conducted to explore the disability questions that they believed were important. In the second phase, nationally recognized experts (N = 17) participated in a modified Delphi panel to develop a set of disability questions. The third phase entailed cognitive interviews (N = 46) with patients with and without disabilities to refine the wording of the disability questions identified through the previous rounds. RESULTS: Through the three phases, six essential questions and three additional recommended questions were identified. Questions addressed hearing, visual, motor, cognitive, communication, and learning disabilities, and the ability to conduct activities of daily living. An overall question for disabilities not included in the previous questions was also identified. CONCLUSION: Through a rigorous, three-stage process that engaged multiple stakeholders, patient-centered disability questions were identified for health care organizations to use to identify disparities within their organizations and accommodations that address these disparities.

Collection of Patients' Disability Status by Healthcare Organizations: Patients' Perceptions and Attitudes.

Recent policies call for healthcare organizations to consistently document patients' disability status for the purpose of tracking the quality of care experienced by patients with disabilities. The purpose of the study was to explore patients' attitudes toward healthcare organizations collecting disability status. We surveyed a convenience sample of patients in three outpatient clinics, including primary care and rehabilitation clinics. A total of 303 patients participated; 49% self-identified as disabled, 59% were female and the mean age was 52 years. The majority of participants (88%) either agreed or strongly agreed that it is important for healthcare organizations to collect information about disabilities; 77% stated that they were comfortable or very comfortable with healthcare organizations collecting this information. By contrast, we found that almost a quarter of participants had concerns with front desk staff collecting disability status information. When we presented disability questions endorsed by the Health and Human Services Department, over a quarter of participants (28%) felt that the questions were not inclusive of all disability categories. Although patients are supportive of healthcare organizations collecting disability status information, concerns exist regarding how the information is collected and which categories are included, suggesting the need for continued development of evidence-based, patient-centered methods and questions.

Comparative safety and costs of stepping down asthma medications in patients with controlled asthma.

BACKGROUND: Limited data exist regarding outcomes after stepping down asthma medication. OBJECTIVE: We sought to compare the safety and costs of stepping down asthma controller medications with maintaining current treatment levels in patients with controlled asthma. METHODS: Patients with persistent asthma were identified from the US Medical Expenditure Panel Survey years 2000-2010. Each patient had Medical Expenditure Panel Survey data for 2 years, and measurement was divided into 5 periods of 4 to 5 months each. Eligibility for stepping down asthma controller medications included no hospitalizations or emergency department visits for asthma in periods 1 to 3 and no systemic corticosteroid and 3 or less rescue inhalers dispensed in periods 2 and 3. Steps were defined by type and dose of chronic asthma medication based on current guidelines when comparing period 4 with period 3. The primary outcome of complete asthma control in period 5 was defined as no asthma hospitalizations, emergency department visits, and dispensed systemic corticosteroids and 2 or fewer dispensed rescue inhalers. Multivariable analyses were conducted to assess safety and costs after step down compared with those who maintained the treatment level. RESULTS: Overall, 29.9% of patients meeting the inclusion criteria (n = 4235) were eligible for step down; 89.4% (95% CI, 86.4% to 92.4%) of those who stepped down had preserved asthma control compared with 83.5% (95% CI, 79.9% to 87.0%) of those who were similarly eligible for step down but maintained their treatment level. The average monthly asthma-related cost savings was $34.02/mo (95% CI, $5.42/mo to $61.24/mo) with step down compared with maintenance of the treatment level. CONCLUSION: Stepping down asthma medications in those whose symptoms were controlled led to similar clinical outcomes at reduced cost compared with those who maintained their current treatment level.

Improvements in Health Behaviors, Eating Self-Efficacy, and Goal-Setting Skills Following Participation in Wellness Coaching.

Purpose . This project examined potential changes in health behaviors following wellness coaching. Design . In a single cohort study design, wellness coaching participants were recruited in 2011, data were collected through July 2012, and were analyzed through December 2013. Items in the study questionnaire used requested information about 11 health behaviors, self-efficacy for eating, and goal-setting skills. Setting . Worksite wellness center. Participants . One-hundred employee wellness center members with an average age of 42 years; 90% were female and most were overweight or obese. Intervention . Twelve weeks of in-person, one-on-one wellness coaching. Method . Participants completed study questionnaires when they started wellness coaching (baseline), after 12 weeks of wellness coaching, and at a 3-month follow-up. Results . From baseline to week 12, these 100 wellness coaching participants improved their self-reported health behaviors (11 domains, 0- to 10-point scale) from an average of 6.4 to 7.7 (p < .001), eating self-efficacy from an average of 112 to 142 (on a 0- to 180-point scale; p < .001), and goal-setting skills from an average of 49 to 55 (on a 16- to 80-point scale; p < .001). Conclusion . These results suggest that participants improved their current health behaviors and learned skills for continued healthy living. Future studies that use randomized controlled trials are needed to establish causality for wellness coaching.

Inclusion of short-term care patients affects the perceived performance of specialists: a retrospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Current publicly reported quality performance measures directly compare primary care to specialty care. Specialists see short-term patients referred due to poor control of their disease who then return to their local provider. Our study looked to determine if outcomes measured in short-term care patients differed from those in long-term care patients and what impact those differences may have on quality performance profiles for specialists. METHODS: Retrospective cohort from a large academic medical Center. Performance was measured as "Optimal Care"--all or none attainment of goals. Patients with short-term care (<90 days contact) versus long-term care (>90 days contact) were evaluated for both specialty and primary care practices during the year 2008. RESULTS: Patients with short-term care had significantly lower "Optimal Care": 7.2% vs. 19.7% for optimal diabetes care in endocrinology and 41.3% vs. 53.1% for optimal ischemic vascular disease care in cardiology (p < 0.001). Combining short and long term care patients lowered overall perceived performance for the specialty practice. CONCLUSIONS: Factors other than quality affect the perceived performance of the specialty practice. Extending current primary care quality measurement to short-term specialty care patients without adjustment produces misleading results.

Workforce shortage for general surgeons: results from the Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Track (SSAT) surgeon shortage survey.

BACKGROUND: Population shifts among surgeons and the general populous will contribute to a predicted general surgeon shortage by 2020. The Public Policy and Advocacy Committee of the Society for Surgery of the Alimentary Tract designed and conducted a survey to assess perceptions and possible solutions from important stakeholders: practicing surgeons of the society, general surgery residents, and medical students. RESULTS: Responses from 1,208 participants: 658 practicing surgeons, 183 general surgery residents, and 367 medical students, were analyzed. There was a strong perception of a current and future surgeon shortage. The majority of surgeons (59.3 %) and residents (64.5 %) perceived a current general surgeon shortage, while 28.6 % of medical students responded the same. When asked of a perceived general surgery shortage in 20 years, 82.4, 81.4, and 51 % said "yes", respectively. There were generational differences in responses to contributors and solutions for the impending shortage. Surgeons placed a high value on improving reimbursement, tort reform, and surgeon burnout, while residents held a strong interest in a national loan forgiveness program and improving lifestyle barriers. CONCLUSION: Our survey offers insight into possible solutions to ward off a surgeon shortage that should be addressed with programmatic changes in residency training and by reform of the national health care system.

The effectiveness of wellness coaching for improving quality of life.

OBJECTIVE: To learn more about the potential psychosocial benefits of wellness coaching. Although wellness coaching is increasing in popularity, there are few published outcome studies. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In a single-cohort study design, 100 employees who completed the 12-week wellness coaching program were of a mean age of 42 years, 90% were women, and most were overweight or obese. Three areas of psychosocial functioning were assessed: quality of life (QOL; 5 domains and overall), depressive symptoms (Patient Health Questionnaire-9), and perceived stress level (Perceived Stress Scale-10). Participants were recruited from January 1, 2011, through December 31, 2011; data were collected up to July 31, 2012, and were analyzed from August 1, 2012, through October 31, 2013. RESULTS: These 100 wellness coaching completers exhibited significant improvements in all 5 domains of QOL and overall QOL (P<.0001), reduced their level of depressive symptoms (P<.0001), and reduced their perceived stress level (P<.001) after 12 weeks of in-person wellness coaching, and they maintained these improvements at the 24-week follow-up. CONCLUSION: In this single-arm cohort study (level 2b evidence), participating in wellness coaching was associated with improvement in 3 key areas of psychosocial functioning: QOL, mood, and perceived stress level. The results from this single prospective cohort study suggest that these areas of functioning improve after participating in wellness coaching; however, randomized clinical trials involving large samples of diverse individuals are needed to establish level 1 evidence for wellness coaching.

Patterns of complementary and alternative medicine use in children with common neurological conditions.

BACKGROUND: Recent literature suggests that one in nine children in the United States uses some type of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). Children with challenging neurological conditions such as headache, migraine, and seizures may seek CAM in their attempts at self-care. Our objective was to describe CAM use in children with these conditions. METHODS: We compared use of CAM among children aged 3 to 17 years with and without common neurological conditions (headaches, migraines, seizures) where CAM might plausibly play a role in their self-management using the 2007 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) data. RESULTS: Children with common neurological conditions reported significantly more CAM use compared to the children without these conditions (24.0% vs 12.6%, P<.0001). Compared to other pediatric CAM users, children with neurological conditions report similarly high use of biological therapies and significantly higher use of mind-body techniques (38.6% vs 20.5%, P<.007). Of the mind-body techniques, deep breathing (32.5%), meditation (15.1%), and progressive relaxation (10.1%) were used most frequently. CONCLUSIONS: About one in four children with common neurological conditions use CAM. The nature of CAM use in this population, as well as its risks and benefits in neurological disease, deserve further investigation.

Putting diabetes on the map: what does population health really look like at the local level?

Population health data are used to profile local conditions, call attention to areas of need, and evaluate health-related programs. Demand for data to inform health care decision making has spurred development of data sources and online systems, but these are often poorly integrated or limited in scope. Our objective was to identify existing data about diabetes mellitus-related conditions in Minnesota, build an online data resource, and identify what data are currently missing that, if available, would better inform assessment of health conditions in the state. A Web site was developed and populated with existing data and data not available elsewhere. It features functionality identified as most important by users, such as maps and county profiles. The site could serve as a flexible tool for stakeholder engagement, but issues were identified during development, including concerns about interpreting map data and open questions about sustainability, that need to be addressed.

'They leave at least believing they had a part in the discussion': understanding decision aid use and patient-clinician decision-making through qualitative research.

OBJECTIVE: This study explores how patient decision aids (DAs) for antihyperglycemic agents and statins, designed for use during clinical consultations, are embedded into practice, examining how patients and clinicians understand and experience DAs in primary care visits. METHODS: We conducted semistructured in-depth interviews with patients (n=22) and primary care clinicians (n=19), and videorecorded consultations (n=44). Two researchers coded all transcripts. Inductive analyses guided by grounded theory led to the identification of themes. Video and interview data were compared and organized by themes. RESULTS: DAs used during consultations became flexible artifacts, incorporated into existing decision making roles for clinicians (experts, authority figures, persuaders, advisors) and patients (drivers of healthcare, learners, partners). DAs were applied to different decision making steps (deliberation, bargaining, convincing, case assessment), and introduced into an existing knowledge context (participants' literacy regarding shared decision-making (SDM) and DAs). CONCLUSION: DAs' flexible use during consultations effectively provided space for discussion, even when SDM was not achieved. DAs can be used within any decision-making model. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Clinician training in DA use and SDM practice may be needed to facilitate DA implementation and promote more ideal-type forms of sharing in decision making.

Asthma expenditures in the United States comparing 2004 to 2006 and 1996 to 1998.

OBJECTIVES: To describe how the types of healthcare expenditures for patients with asthma have changed over the past decade. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional comparison between individuals from 1996 to 1998 and 2004 to 2006. METHODS: Expenditures among US individuals (aged 5 to 56 years) with asthma were compared using the 1996 to 1998 and the 2004 to 2006 Medical Expenditure Panel Surveys. Direct expenditures (medications, inpatient, outpatient, and emergency services) and changes in productivity (missed school and work days) were compared over this time frame. The adjusted analyses controlled for age, education level, race/ethnicity, gender, poverty, region, metropolitan statistical area, self-reported health, and Charlson Comorbidity Index. RESULTS: Mean annual per capita healthcare expenditures increased between 1996 to 1998 and 2004 to 2006 ($3802 vs $5322 inflated to 2010 US dollars, P <.0001). Annual medication expenditures doubled from $974 to $2010 per person (P <.0001) and outpatient visit expenditures increased from $861 to $1174 (P <.0001) while hospitalization and emergency department (ED) visit expenditures were similar over the same time period. Missed school and work days decreased between the 2 periods (9.23 days in 1996-1998 vs 6.39 days in 2004-2006, P = .001). CONCLUSIONS: An increase in total direct expenditures in individuals with asthma was largely driven by an increase in spending on medications comparing 2004 to 2006 and 1996 to 1998 data. However, this increase was not offset by lower spending on hospitalization and ED visits.

Incidence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli bacteriuria according to age and location of onset: a population-based study from Olmsted County, Minnesota.

OBJECTIVE: To better understand the epidemiology of drug-resistant Escherichia coli across health care and community settings. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We conducted a population-based cohort study of the incidence of antibiotic-resistant E coli bacteriuria among different patient groups. All urine cultures with monomicrobial growth of E coli obtained from Olmsted County, Minnesota, residents from January 1, 2005, through December 31, 2009, were identified. The initial isolate per patient per year was included. Analyses were stratified by patient age and location of infection onset (ie, nosocomial, health care associated, and community associated). RESULTS: We evaluated 5619 E coli isolates and the associated patients. During the study period, the incidence of drug-resistant bacteriuria did not change among children but increased significantly among adults of all ages, most markedly among elderly patients older than 80 years. In elderly patients, the incidence of bacteriuria with isolates resistant to fluoroquinolones increased from 464 to 1116 per 100,000 person-years (P<.001), and the incidence of bacteriuria with isolates resistant to fluoroquinolones plus trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole increased from 274 to 512 per 100,000 person-years (P<.05). When analyzed by location of infection onset, incidence of bacteriuria with isolates resistant to trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, fluoroquinolones, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole plus fluoroquinolones, extended-spectrum cephalosporins, and more than 3 drug classes increased significantly among community-associated but not among nosocomial or health care-associated cases. CONCLUSION: In this population-based study, the incidence of antibiotic-resistant E coli bacteriuria nearly doubled during the 5-year study period among elderly patients and those with community-associated isolates. These patient groups should be targets of interventions to slow the emergence and spread of antibiotic-resistant E coli.

The asthma ePrompt: a novel electronic solution for chronic disease management.

OBJECTIVE: This study tested the ability of an electronic prompt to promote an asthma assessment during primary care visits. METHODS: We performed a prospective study of all eligible adult patients with previously diagnosed asthma in three geographically distinct ambulatory family medicine clinics within a 4-month period. The usual clinic visit process was performed at two geographically distinct control sites (n = 75 and n = 55 patients, respectively). The intervention group site (n = 64) had an electronic flag embedded in the Patient Check-in Locator field which prompted the distribution of a self-administered Asthma Management Questionnaire (AMQ) in the waiting room. The primary outcome measure was a documented asthma severity assessment. RESULTS: The front desk distributed the AMQ successfully in 100% of possible opportunities and the AMQ was completed by 84% of patients. Providers in the intervention group were significantly more likely than providers in the two non-intervention groups to document asthma severity in the medical record during a non-asthma ambulatory clinic visit (63.3% vs. 18.7% vs. 3.6%; p < .001). CONCLUSION: The provision of standardized asthma information triggered by an electronic prompt at the time of check-in effectively initiates an asthma assessment during the primary care visits.

The impact of asthma medication guidelines on asthma controller use and on asthma exacerbation rates comparing 1997-1998 and 2004-2005.

BACKGROUND: The relationship between asthma controller medication use and exacerbation rates over time is unclear at the population level. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the change in asthma controller medication use between 2 time periods as measured by the controller-to-total asthma medication ratio and its association with changes in asthma exacerbation rates between 1997-1998 and 2004-2005. METHODS: The study design was a cross-sectional population-level comparison between individuals from 1997-1998 and 2004-2005. Study participants were individuals aged 5 to 56 years identified as having asthma in the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS). The main outcome measures were a controller-to-total asthma medication ratio greater than 0.5 and asthma exacerbation rates (dispensing of systemic corticosteroid or emergency department visit/hospitalization for asthma) in 1997-1998 compared with 2004-2005. RESULTS: The proportion of individuals with a controller-to-total asthma medication ratio greater than 0.5, when adjusted for other demographic factors, has improved by 16.1% (95% CI: 10.8%, 21.3%) for all individuals from 1997-1998 to 2004-2005. Annual asthma exacerbation rates did not change significantly in any group from 1997-1998 to 2004-2005 (0.27/year to 0.23/year). African American and Hispanic individuals with asthma had higher asthma exacerbation rates and a lower proportion with a controller-to-total asthma medication ratio greater than 0.5 than whites in both 1997-1998 and 2004-2005; however, these differences were not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: An increase in asthma controller-to-total medication ratio in a sample reflective of the US population was not associated with a decreased asthma exacerbation rate comparing 1997-1998 and 2004-2005.

Effectiveness of a quality improvement training course: Mayo Clinic Quality Academy.

This study assessed the effectiveness of Quality Academy Teams Training, a team-based process improvement program at Mayo Clinic. The study population consisted of employees who attended the course in 2008 (n = 103). A pretest-posttest design was used to assess learning by participants of the course, and gain score analysis was conducted using paired t test procedures. Electronic surveys were sent to participants 90 days following completion of the course to assess self-reported application of skills and process improvement tools in the work setting. The mean overall score (n = 99) for the posttest was 68%, which was a significant improvement from the pretest mean of 48% (P < .001). Survey results showed that respondents (n = 58) increased their use of 36 specific process improvement tools on the job after attending the training (P < .001). Other health care institutions may benefit from the implementation of quality-related training programs that teach employees to use process improvement tools and methods.

A two-county comparison of the HOUSES index on predicting self-rated health.

BACKGROUND: Mortality, incidence of most diseases, and prevalence of adverse health behaviours follow an inverse gradient with social class. Many proxies for socioeconomic status (SES) exist; however, each bears a different relation to health outcomes, probably following a different aetiological pathway. Additionally, data on SES can be quite difficult to gather. Five measures of SES were compared, including a novel measure, the HOUSES index, in the prediction of self-rated health (SRH) in two Midwestern settings, Olmsted County, Minnesota, and Jackson County, Missouri. METHODS: Using a probability sampling design, a cross-sectional telephone survey was administered to a randomised sample of households. The questionnaire collected a variety of sociodemographic and personal health information. The dependent variable, SRH, was dichotomised into excellent/very good/good versus fair/poor health. Information for the HOUSES index was collected through public property records and corroborated through the telephone questionnaire. Participants were parents/guardians of children aged 1-17 residing in Olmsted County (n = 746) and Jackson County (n = 704). RESULTS: The HOUSES index was associated with adverse SRH in Jackson County adults. All five SES measures were significant predictors in this group. Composite SES indices showed significant associations with SRH in Olmsted County adults. CONCLUSIONS: The HOUSES index makes a unique contribution to the measurement of SES and prediction of health outcomes. Its utility is qualified by specific social contexts, and it should be used in concert with other SES indices.

Clinical and economic outcomes after introduction of drug-eluting stents.

BACKGROUND: In clinical trials, drug-eluting stents (DES) improve clinical outcomes but are more expensive than bare-metal stents (BMS). OBJECTIVE: To assess clinical and economic outcomes of all percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) procedures in a general interventional cardiology practice before and after DES introduction in 2003. METHODS: We identified all patients undergoing PCI in 2000-2002 (early cohort, pre-DES era) and from 2004 through April 31, 2006 (late cohort, DES era) in a large PCI registry. Logistic and Cox proportional hazard models estimated the risk of adverse events; generalized linear modeling predicted economic outcomes. RESULTS: We compared 4303 early-cohort patients with 3422 late-cohort patients. Most early-cohort patients (90%) had BMS implanted; the rest had atherectomy or balloon angioplasty only. Among late-cohort patients, 83% had DES, 14% BMS, and 6% balloon angioplasty or atherectomy only. In-hospital adverse-event rates and incidence of death or myocardial infarction (during a median follow-up of 22 months) were similar. Follow-up procedures were significantly fewer in the later era (hazard ratio for target lesion revascularization: 0.58; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.50-0.68). Although catheterization lab supply costs were higher in the DES era, length of stay following index PCI and overall practice costs were reduced, on average, 0.40 days and $2053 in the late cohort (95% bootstrapped CI of adjusted mean difference, -$2937 to -$1197). Follow-up cardiac hospitalization costs were similar at 1 year. CONCLUSIONS: Patients undergoing PCI following DES introduction experienced improved clinical outcomes during follow-up and reduced overall procedural costs, despite higher stent acquisition costs.