Loss of CaMKI Function Disrupts Salt Aversive Learning in C. elegans.

The ability to adapt behavior to environmental fluctuations is critical for survival of organisms ranging from invertebrates to mammals. Caenorhabditis elegans can learn to avoid sodium chloride when it is paired with starvation. This behavior may help animals avoid areas without food. Although some genes have been implicated in this salt-aversive learning behavior, critical genetic components, and the neural circuit in which they act, remain elusive. Here, we show that the sole worm ortholog of mammalian CaMKI/IV, CMK-1, is essential for salt-aversive learning behavior in C. elegans hermaphrodites. We find that CMK-1 acts in the primary salt-sensing ASE neurons to regulate this behavior. By characterizing the intracellular calcium dynamics in ASE neurons using microfluidics, we find that loss of cmk-1 has subtle effects on sensory-evoked calcium responses in ASE axons and their modulation by salt conditioning. Our study implicates the expression of the conserved CaMKI/CMK-1 in chemosensory neurons as a regulator of behavioral plasticity to environmental salt in C. elegansSIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Like other animals, the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans depends on salt for survival and navigates toward high concentrations of this essential mineral. In addition to its role as an essential nutrient, salt also causes osmotic stress at high concentrations. A growing body of evidence indicates that C. elegans balances the requirement for salt with the danger it presents through a process called salt-aversive learning. We show that this behavior depends on expression of a calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase, CMK-1, in the ASE salt-sensing neurons. Our study identifies CMK-1 and salt-sensitive chemosensory neurons as key factors in this form of behavioral plasticity.

Deletion of Prkcz increases intermittent ethanol consumption in mice.

BACKGROUND: Prkcz has been identified as a gene whose expression is positively correlated with ethanol (EtOH) consumption in mice and is also induced by EtOH. Two proteins are produced from Prkcz: protein kinase M zeta (PKMζ), which is expressed in the nervous system and protein kinase C zeta (PKCζ), which is expressed in other tissues. We examined Prkcz(-/-) mice that lack PKCζ and PKMζ to investigate the role of this gene in behavioral responses to EtOH. METHODS: Male Prkcz(-/-) and wild-type littermates were tested for EtOH consumption using 4 procedures: 24-hour intermittent access, 4-hour limited intermittent access, 4-day drinking-in-the-dark, and 24-hour continuous access. We also assessed the acute hypnotic effect of EtOH, EtOH reward, and taste preference for sweet-, bitter-, salty-, and umami-flavored solutions. Finally, we determined whether EtOH could increase PKMζ and PKCζ transcripts and protein expression in wild-type mice using quantitative PCR and Western blot analysis. RESULTS: Prkcz(-/-) mice consumed more EtOH than their wild-type littermates in both intermittent access procedures, but not in the drinking-in-the-dark or 24-hour continuous access procedures. EtOH exposure increased Prkcz transcripts in cultured PC12 cells, and intermittent EtOH consumption increased PKMζ protein in the ventral striatum of wild-type mice. CONCLUSIONS: Absence of PKMζ in the brain is associated with increased EtOH intake during procedures that incorporate intermittent consumption sessions every other day. Our data suggest that EtOH induces PKMζ, which acts in a negative feedback loop to limit binge-like EtOH consumption.

Maize RNA polymerase IV defines trans-generational epigenetic variation.

The maize (Zea mays) RNA Polymerase IV (Pol IV) largest subunit, RNA Polymerase D1 (RPD1 or NRPD1), is required for facilitating paramutations, restricting expression patterns of genes required for normal development, and generating small interfering RNA (siRNAs). Despite this expanded role for maize Pol IV relative to Arabidopsis thaliana, neither the general characteristics of Pol IV-regulated haplotypes, nor their prevalence, are known. Here, we show that specific haplotypes of the purple plant1 locus, encoding an anthocyanin pigment regulator, acquire and retain an expanded expression domain following transmission from siRNA biogenesis mutants. This conditioned expression pattern is progressively enhanced over generations in Pol IV mutants and then remains heritable after restoration of Pol IV function. This unusual genetic behavior is associated with promoter-proximal transposon fragments but is independent of sequences required for paramutation. These results indicate that trans-generational Pol IV action defines the expression patterns of haplotypes using co-opted transposon-derived sequences as regulatory elements. Our results provide a molecular framework for the concept that induced changes to the heterochromatic component of the genome are coincident with heritable changes in gene regulation. Alterations of this Pol IV-based regulatory system can generate potentially desirable and adaptive traits for selection to act upon.

Bridging the transgenerational gap with epigenetic memory.

It is textbook knowledge that inheritance of traits is governed by genetics, and that the epigenetic modifications an organism acquires are largely reset between generations. Recently, however, transgenerational epigenetic inheritance has emerged as a rapidly growing field, providing evidence suggesting that some epigenetic changes result in persistent phenotypes across generations. Here, we survey some of the most recent examples of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in animals, ranging from Caenorhabditis elegans to humans, and describe approaches and limitations to studying this phenomenon. We also review the current body of evidence implicating chromatin modifications and RNA molecules in mechanisms underlying this unconventional mode of inheritance and discuss its evolutionary implications.

Prkcz null mice show normal learning and memory.

Protein kinase M-ζ (PKM-ζ) is a constitutively active form of atypical protein kinase C that is exclusively expressed in the brain and implicated in the maintenance of long-term memory. Most studies that support a role for PKM-ζ in memory maintenance have used pharmacological PKM-ζ inhibitors such as the myristoylated zeta inhibitory peptide (ZIP) or chelerythrine. Here we use a genetic approach and target exon 9 of the Prkcz gene to generate mice that lack both protein kinase C-ζ (PKC-ζ) and PKM-ζ (Prkcz(-/-) mice). Prkcz(-/-) mice showed normal behaviour in a cage environment and in baseline tests of motor function and sensory perception, but displayed reduced anxiety-like behaviour. Notably, Prkcz(-/-) mice did not show deficits in learning or memory in tests of cued fear conditioning, novel object recognition, object location recognition, conditioned place preference for cocaine, or motor learning, when compared with wild-type littermates. ZIP injection into the nucleus accumbens reduced expression of cocaine-conditioned place preference in Prkcz(-/-) mice. In vitro, ZIP and scrambled ZIP inhibited PKM-ζ, PKC-ι and PKC-ζ with similar inhibition constant (K(i)) values. Chelerythrine was a weak inhibitor of PKM-ζ (K(i) = 76 µM). Our findings show that absence of PKM-ζ does not impair learning and memory in mice, and that ZIP can erase reward memory even when PKM-ζ is not present.

JNK pathway activation is controlled by Tao/TAOK3 to modulate ethanol sensitivity.

Neuronal signal transduction by the JNK MAP kinase pathway is altered by a broad array of stimuli including exposure to the widely abused drug ethanol, but the behavioral relevance and the regulation of JNK signaling is unclear. Here we demonstrate that JNK signaling functions downstream of the Sterile20 kinase family gene tao/Taok3 to regulate the behavioral effects of acute ethanol exposure in both the fruit fly Drosophila and mice. In flies tao is required in neurons to promote sensitivity to the locomotor stimulant effects of acute ethanol exposure and to establish specific brain structures. Reduced expression of key JNK pathway genes substantially rescued the structural and behavioral phenotypes of tao mutants. Decreasing and increasing JNK pathway activity resulted in increased and decreased sensitivity to the locomotor stimulant properties of acute ethanol exposure, respectively. Further, JNK expression in a limited pattern of neurons that included brain regions implicated in ethanol responses was sufficient to restore normal behavior. Mice heterozygous for a disrupted allele of the homologous Taok3 gene (Taok3Gt) were resistant to the acute sedative effects of ethanol. JNK activity was constitutively increased in brains of Taok3Gt/+ mice, and acute induction of phospho-JNK in brain tissue by ethanol was occluded in Taok3Gt/+ mice. Finally, acute administration of a JNK inhibitor conferred resistance to the sedative effects of ethanol in wild-type but not Taok3Gt/+ mice. Taken together, these data support a role of a TAO/TAOK3-JNK neuronal signaling pathway in regulating sensitivity to acute ethanol exposure in flies and in mice.

Responses to ethanol in C57BL/6 versus C57BL/6 × 129 hybrid mice.

Although genetic background alters responses to ethanol, there has not yet been a methodical quantification of differences in ethanol-related behaviors between inbred and hybrid mice commonly used in gene-targeting studies. Here, we compared C57BL/6NTac × 129S6/SvEvTac F1 hybrid mice (B6129S6) with C57BL/6NTac inbred mice (B6NT), and C57BL/6J × 129X1/SvJ (B6129X1) and C57BL/6J × 129S4/SvJae F1 hybrids (B6129S4) with C57BL/6J mice (B6J), in five commonly used tests: continuous access two-bottle choice drinking, intermittent limited-access binge drinking, ethanol clearance, ethanol-induced loss of the righting reflex, and conditioned place preference (CPP) for ethanol. We found that inbred B6J and B6NT mice showed greater ethanol preference and consumption than their respective hybrids when ethanol was continuously available. Within the intermittent limited-access drinking procedure, though all lines showed similar intake over eight drinking sessions, the average of all sessions showed that B6NT mice drank significantly more ethanol than B6129S6 mice. In addition, B6J mice consumed more ethanol than B6129X1 mice, although they drank less than B6129S4 mice. No differences in ethanol LORR duration were observed between inbred and hybrid mice. Although ethanol clearance was similar among B6J mice and their respective hybrids, B6NT mice cleared ethanol more rapidly than B6129S6 mice. All lines developed CPP for ethanol. Our findings indicate that it may not be necessary to backcross hybrids to an inbred B6 background to study many ethanol-related behaviors in gene-targeted mice.

required to maintain repression2 is a novel protein that facilitates locus-specific paramutation in maize.

Meiotically heritable epigenetic changes in gene regulation known as paramutations are facilitated by poorly understood trans-homolog interactions. Mutations affecting paramutations in maize (Zea mays) identify components required for the accumulation of 24-nucleotide RNAs. Some of these components have Arabidopsis thaliana orthologs that are part of an RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM) pathway. It remains unclear if small RNAs actually mediate paramutations and whether the maize-specific molecules identified to date define a mechanism distinct from RdDM. Here, we identify a novel protein required for paramutation at the maize purple plant1 locus. This required to maintain repression2 (RMR2) protein represents the founding member of a plant-specific clade of predicted proteins. We show that RMR2 is required for transcriptional repression at the Pl1-Rhoades haplotype, for accumulation of 24-nucleotide RNA species, and for maintenance of a 5-methylcytosine pattern distinct from that maintained by RNA polymerase IV. Genetic tests indicate that RMR2 is not required for paramutation occurring at the red1 locus. These results distinguish the paramutation-type mechanisms operating at specific haplotypes. The RMR2 clade of proteins provides a new entry point for understanding the diversity of epigenomic control operating in higher plants.

Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of longevity in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Chromatin modifiers regulate lifespan in several organisms, raising the question of whether changes in chromatin states in the parental generation could be incompletely reprogrammed in the next generation and thereby affect the lifespan of descendants. The histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) complex, composed of ASH-2, WDR-5 and the histone methyltransferase SET-2, regulates Caenorhabditis elegans lifespan. Here we show that deficiencies in the H3K4me3 chromatin modifiers ASH-2, WDR-5 or SET-2 in the parental generation extend the lifespan of descendants up until the third generation. The transgenerational inheritance of lifespan extension by members of the ASH-2 complex is dependent on the H3K4me3 demethylase RBR-2, and requires the presence of a functioning germline in the descendants. Transgenerational inheritance of lifespan is specific for the H3K4me3 methylation complex and is associated with epigenetic changes in gene expression. Thus, manipulation of specific chromatin modifiers only in parents can induce an epigenetic memory of longevity in descendants.

An evolutionary conserved role for anaplastic lymphoma kinase in behavioral responses to ethanol.

Anaplastic lymphoma kinase (Alk) is a gene expressed in the nervous system that encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase commonly known for its oncogenic function in various human cancers. We have determined that Alk is associated with altered behavioral responses to ethanol in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster, in mice, and in humans. Mutant flies containing transposon insertions in dAlk demonstrate increased resistance to the sedating effect of ethanol. Database analyses revealed that Alk expression levels in the brains of recombinant inbred mice are negatively correlated with ethanol-induced ataxia and ethanol consumption. We therefore tested Alk gene knockout mice and found that they sedate longer in response to high doses of ethanol and consume more ethanol than wild-type mice. Finally, sequencing of human ALK led to the discovery of four polymorphisms associated with a low level of response to ethanol, an intermediate phenotype that is predictive of future alcohol use disorders (AUDs). These results suggest that Alk plays an evolutionary conserved role in ethanol-related behaviors. Moreover, ALK may be a novel candidate gene conferring risk for AUDs as well as a potential target for pharmacological intervention.

Diversity of Pol IV function is defined by mutations at the maize rmr7 locus.

Mutations affecting the heritable maintenance of epigenetic states in maize identify multiple small RNA biogenesis factors including NRPD1, the largest subunit of the presumed maize Pol IV holoenzyme. Here we show that mutations defining the required to maintain repression7 locus identify a second RNA polymerase subunit related to Arabidopsis NRPD2a, the sole second largest subunit shared between Arabidopsis Pol IV and Pol V. A phylogenetic analysis shows that, in contrast to representative eudicots, grasses have retained duplicate loci capable of producing functional NRPD2-like proteins, which is indicative of increased RNA polymerase diversity in grasses relative to eudicots. Together with comparisons of rmr7 mutant plant phenotypes and their effects on the maintenance of epigenetic states with parallel analyses of NRPD1 defects, our results imply that maize utilizes multiple functional NRPD2-like proteins. Despite the observation that RMR7/NRPD2, like NRPD1, is required for the accumulation of most siRNAs, our data indicate that different Pol IV isoforms play distinct roles in the maintenance of meiotically-heritable epigenetic information in the grasses.

RNA polymerase IV functions in paramutation in Zea mays.

Plants have distinct RNA polymerase complexes (Pol IV and Pol V) with largely unknown roles in maintaining small RNA-associated gene silencing. Curiously, the eudicot Arabidopsis thaliana is not affected when either function is lost. By use of mutation selection and positional cloning, we showed that the largest subunit of the presumed maize Pol IV is involved in paramutation, an inherited epigenetic change facilitated by an interaction between two alleles, as well as normal maize development. Bioinformatics analyses and nuclear run-on transcription assays indicate that Pol IV does not engage in the efficient RNA synthesis typical of the three major eukaryotic DNA-dependent RNA polymerases. These results indicate that Pol IV employs abnormal RNA polymerase activities to achieve genome-wide silencing and that its absence affects both maize development and heritable epigenetic changes.