Microfluidic Strategies for Encapsulation, Protection, and Controlled Delivery of Probiotics.

Probiotics are indispensable for maintaining the structure of gut microbiota and promoting human health, yet their survivability is frequently compromised by environmental stressors such as temperature fluctuations, pH variations, and mechanical agitation. In response to these challenges, microfluidic technology emerges as a promising avenue. This comprehensive review delves into the utilization of microfluidic technology for the encapsulation and delivery of probiotics within the gastrointestinal tract, with a focus on mitigating obstacles associated with probiotic viability. Initially, it elucidates the design and application of microfluidic devices, providing a precise platform for probiotic encapsulation. Moreover, it scrutinizes the utilization of carriers fabricated through microfluidic devices, including emulsions, microspheres, gels, and nanofibers, with the intent of bolstering probiotic stability. Subsequently, the review assesses the efficacy of encapsulation methodologies through in vitro gastrointestinal simulations and in vivo experimentation, underscoring the potential of microfluidic technology in amplifying probiotic delivery efficiency and health outcomes. In sum, microfluidic technology represents a pioneering approach to probiotic stabilization, offering avenues to cater to consumer preferences for a diverse array of functional food options.

Core-shell nanofibers based on microalgae proteins/alginate complexes for enhancing survivability of probiotics.

In this study, a novel one-step coaxial electrospinning process is employed to fabricate shell-core structure fibers choosing Chlorella pyrenoidosa proteins (CP) as the core material. These nanofibers, serving as the wall material for probiotic encapsulation, aimed to enhance the stability and antioxidant activity of probiotics in food processing, storage, and gastrointestinal environments under sensitive conditions. Morphological analysis was used to explore the beads-on-a-string morphology and core-shell structure of the electrospun fibers. Probiotics were successfully encapsulated within the fibers (7.97 log CFU/g), exhibiting a well-oriented structure along the distributed fibers. Compared to free probiotics and uniaxial fibers loaded with probiotics, encapsulation within microalgae proteins/alginate core-shell structure nanofibers significantly enhanced the probiotic cells' tolerance to simulated gastrointestinal conditions (p < 0.05). Thermal analysis indicated that microalgae proteins/alginate core-shell structure nanofibers displayed superior thermal stability compared to uniaxial fibers. The introduction of CP resulted in a 50 % increase in the antioxidant capacity of probiotics-loaded microalgae proteins/alginate nanofibers compared to uniaxial alginate nanofibers, with minimal loss of viability (0.8 log CFU/g) after 28 days of storage at 4 °C. In summary, this dual-layer carrier holds immense potential in probiotic encapsulation and enhancing their resistance to harsh conditions.

Light-driven textile sensors with potential application of UV detection.

Smart textiles based on monitoring systems of health conditions, structural behaviour, and external environmental conditions have been presented as elegant solutions for the increasing demands of health care. In this study, cotton fabrics (CFs) were modified by a common strategy with a dipping-padding procedure using reduced graphene oxide (RGO) and a photosensitive dye, spiropyran (SP), which can detect environmental UV light. The morphology of the CF is observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) measurements showing that the topography structure of coatings is related to the SP content. The resistance of the textile sensors decreases after UV radiation, which may be attributed to the easier electron transmission on the coatings of the CF. With the increase of SP content, the introduction of a large amount of SP within the composites could cause discontinuous distributions of RGO in the fiber surfaces, preventing electron transmission within the coatings of the RGO. The surface wettability of the coatings and the sweat sensitivity are also studied before and after UV radiation.

Hydrogen Bonding Promotes Alcohol C-C Coupling.

Photocatalytic C-C bond formation coupled with H2 production provides a sustainable approach to producing carbon-chain-prolonged chemicals and hydrogen energy. However, the involved radical intermediates with open-shell electronic structures are highly reactive, experiencing predominant oxidative or reductive side reactions in semiconductors. Herein, we demonstrate that hydrogen bonding on the catalyst surface and in the bulk solution can inhibit oxidation and reverse reaction of α-hydroxyethyl radicals (αHRs) in photocatalytic dehydrocoupling of ethanol over Au/CdS. Intentionally added water forms surface hydrogen bonds with adsorbed αHRs and strengthens the hydrogen bonding between αHRs and ethanol while maintaining the flexibility of radicals in solution, thereby allowing for αHRs' desorption from the Au/CdS surface and their stabilization by a solvent. The coupling rate of αHR increases by 2.4-fold, and the selectivity of the target product, 2,3-butanediol (BDO), increases from 37 to 57%. This work manifests that nonchemical bonding interactions can steer the reaction paths of radicals for selective photocatalysis.

Revisiting stress-strain behavior and mechanical reinforcement of polymer nanocomposites from molecular dynamics simulations.

Through coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, the effects of nanoparticle properties, polymer-nanoparticle interactions, chain crosslinks and temperature on the stress-strain behavior and mechanical reinforcement of polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) are comprehensively investigated. By regulating the filler-polymer interaction (miscibility) in a wide range, an optimal dispersion state of nanoparticles is found at moderate interaction strength, while the mechanical properties of PNCs are improved monotonically with the increase of the particle-polymer interaction due to the tele-bridge structures of nanoparticles via polymer chains. Although smaller-sized fillers more easily build interconnected structures, the elastic moduli of PNCs at the percolation threshold concentration where a three-dimensional filler network forms are almost independent of nanoparticle size. Compared with spherical nanoparticles, anisotropic rod-like ones, especially with larger aspect ratio and rod stiffness, contribute exceptional reinforcement towards polymer materials. In addition, the elastic modulus with the strain, derived from the stress-strain curve, shows an analogous nonlinear behavior to the amplitude-dependence of the storage modulus (Payne effect). Such a behavior originates essentially from the failure/breakup of the microstructures contributing to the mechanical reinforcement, such as bound polymer layers around nanoparticles or nanoparticle networking structures. The Young's modulus as a function of the nanoparticle volume fraction greatly exceeds that predicted by the Einstein-Smallwood model and Guth-Gold model, which arises primarily from the contribution of the local/global filler network. The temperature dependence of the Young's modulus is further examined by mode coupling theory (MCT) and the Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann (VFT) equation, and the results indicate that the time-temperature superposition principle holds modestly above the critical temperature on the short-time (small-length) scale of elastic response. This work is expected to provide some guidance on controlling and improving the mechanical properties and nonlinear behavior of PNCs.

In situ formation of mononuclear complexes by reaction-induced atomic dispersion of supported noble metal nanoparticles.

Supported noble metal nanoclusters and single-metal-site catalysts are inclined to aggregate into particles, driven by the high surface-to-volume ratio. Herein, we report a general method to atomically disperse noble metal nanoparticles. The activated carbon supported nanoparticles of Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Ir and Pt metals with loading up to 5 wt. % are completely dispersed by reacting with CH3I and CO mixture. The dispersive process of the Rh nanoparticle is investigated in depth as an example. The in-situ detected I• radicals and CO molecules are identified to promote the breakage of Rh-Rh bonds and the formation of mononuclear complexes. The isolated Rh mononuclear complexes are immobilized by the oxygen-containing functional groups based on the effective atomic number rule. The method also provides a general strategy for the development of single-metal-site catalysts for other applications.

Air- and Light-Stable P4 and As4 within an Anion-Coordination-Based Tetrahedral Cage.

In contrast to the stable dinitrogen molecule, white phosphorus (P4) and yellow arsenic (As4) are very reactive allotropic modifications of these two heavier pnictogen elements, which has greatly hampered the study of their properties and applications. Thus, the safe storage and transport of them is imperative. Supramolecular caged structures are one of the most efficient approaches for the encapsulation and stabilization of reactive species; however, their use in the P4 and As4 chemistry is very rare. In the current work, we demonstrate a new design strategy for constructing finite cages and including guests based on anion coordination chemistry. The phosphate-coordination-based tetrahedral cages can readily accommodate the tetrahedral guests P4 and As4, which is facilitated by the shape and size complementarity as well as favorable σ-π and lone-pair-π interactions. Moreover, the latter case represents the first example of As4 inclusion in a well-defined tetrahedral cage.

First-Principles Study on Structural and Chemical Asymmetry of a Biomimetic Water-Splitting Dimanganese Complex.

Density-functional theory calculations are carried out for a biomimetic dimanganese complex, [H2O(terpy)Mn(III)(µ-O)2Mn(IV)(terpy)OH2](3+)(1, terpy = 2,2':6',2″-terpyridine), which is a structural model for the oxygen evolving center of photosystem II. Theoretical investigations aim at elucidating the asymmetry features in the geometric and electronic structures of complex 1, as well as their influences on the chemical functions of the two manganese centers, in the presence of water solvent. With the insight gained from the first-principles calculations, we study the oxidation state of complex 1 in the acetate buffer solution. Both the thermodynamic and kinetic aspects are explored in detail, and the structural and chemical asymmetry of the two manganese centers is fully considered. It is found that the larger steric repulsion associated with the Mn(IV) center plays a decisive role, which leads to the predominant acetate coordination at the Mn(III) ion. This thus resolves the existing controversy on the preferential acetate binding to complex 1.

Theoretical investigation of the proton transfer mechanism in guanine-cytosine and adenine-thymine base pairs.

Ab initio constrained molecular dynamics and metadynamics were employed to investigate the mechanism of proton transfer in guanine-cytosine (GC) and adenine-thymine (AT) base pairs in the gas phase at room temperature. It is shown that double proton transfer (DPT) in the GC base pair is a concerted and asynchronous mechanism, and three pathways with a similar free energy barrier start from the canonical GC and end up in its "rare" imino-enol tautomer. The activation energy for the route that the DPT starts from the hydrogen atom movement in the O6(G)-N4(C) bridge is approximately 1.0 kcal/mol higher than that which starts in the N1(G)-N3(C) bridge. For the AT base pair, a stable intermediate state is identified in the two-dimensional free energy surface of the DPT event. We found that the movement of the hydrogen atom in the N1(A)-N3(T) bridge occurs before the movement of the hydrogen atom in the N6(A)-O4(T) bridge. Thus, it is demonstrated that the DPT in AT base pairs is a stepwise and an asynchronous mechanism.

Theoretical study of catalytic mechanism for single-site water oxidation process.

Water oxidation is a linchpin in solar fuels formation, and catalysis by single-site ruthenium complexes has generated significant interest in this area. Combining several theoretical tools, we have studied the entire catalytic cycle of water oxidation for a single-site catalyst starting with [Ru(II)(tpy)(bpm)(OH(2))](2+) (i.e., [Ru(II)-OH(2)](2+); tpy is 2,2':6',2''-terpyridine and bpm is 2,2'-bypyrimidine) as a representative example of a new class of single-site catalysts. The redox potentials and pK(a) calculations for the first two proton-coupled electron transfers (PCETs) from [Ru(II)-OH(2)](2+) to [Ru(IV) = O](2+) and the following electron-transfer process to [Ru(V) = O](3+) suggest that these processes can proceed readily in acidic or weakly basic conditions. The subsequent water splitting process involves two water molecules, [Ru(V) = O](3+) to generate [Ru(III)-OOH](2+), and H(3)O(+) with a low activation barrier (~10 kcal/mol). After the key O-O bond forming step in the single-site Ru catalysis, another PECT process oxidizes [Ru(III)-OOH](2+) to [Ru(IV)-OO](2+) when the pH is lower than 3.7. Two possible forms of [Ru(IV)-OO](2+), open and closed, can exist and interconvert with a low activation barrier (< 7 kcal/mol) due to strong spin-orbital coupling effects. In Pathway 1 at pH = 1.0, oxygen release is rate-limiting with an activation barrier ~12 kcal/mol while the electron-transfer step from [Ru(IV)-OO](2+) to [Ru(V)-OO](3+) becomes rate-determining at pH = 0 (Pathway 2) with Ce(IV) as oxidant. The results of these theoretical studies with atomistic details have revealed subtle details of reaction mechanisms at several stages during the catalytic cycle. This understanding is helpful in the design of new catalysts for water oxidation.

Microcanonical analysis of adsorption of homopolymer chain on a surface.

The adsorption process of a homopolymer chain nongrafted on an attractive surface is numerically investigated using replica-exchange multicanonical Monte Carlo simulation. Based on the microcanonical analysis, the microcanonical entropy in the adsorption transition shows convex features. Correspondingly, with the coexistence of two phases, negative specific heat is also observed in the region, implying first-orderlike transition. The origin of the negative specific heat is due to the nonextensitivity of the energy in the system. This adsorption process has some similarities to the nucleation and growth mechanism in the crystalline process. Further study reveals that the transition type, either first- or second-orderlike, during chain adsorption is strongly dependent on the chain length, interactions among segments, whether chain grafted on the surface, and force upon segments imposed by surface.

Canonical and microcanonical analysis of nongrafted homopolymer adsorption by an attractive substrate.

Using the off-lattice Monte Carlo simulation and replica-exchange method, we studied the behavior of nongrafted homopolymer adsorption by an attractive substrate from both the canonical and the microcanonical views. An adsorption transition is identified from the peak in canonical specific heat and compared with the conventional polymer adsorption with one end anchored on the surface of the substrate. Judging from the typical "backbending effect" and the negative specific heat in microcanonical ensemble, the transition is first-order-like when adsorption is relatively strong. However, it becomes second-order-like when the strength of adsorption becomes weak enough. Further study reveals that for a chain consisting of a limited number of monomers, the type of this transition becoming either first- or second-order-like depends not only on the interplay between monomer-monomer and monomer-substrate interaction, but also on the width of the gap in which it is confined.

Microcanonical analyses of homopolymer aggregation processes.

Using replica-exchange multicanonical Monte Carlo simulation, the aggregates of two homopolymers were numerically investigated through the microcanonical analysis method. The microcanonical entropy showed one convex function in the transition region, leading to a negative microcanonical specific heat. The origin of temperature backbending was the rearrangement of the segments during the process of aggregation; this aggregation process proceeded via a nucleation and growth mechanism. It was observed that the segments with a sequence number from 10 to 13 in the polymer chain have leading effects on the aggregation.

Microcanonical analysis of association of hydrophobic segments in a heteropolymer.

Using the replica-exchange multicanonical Monte Carlo simulation, the intra-association of hydrophobic segments in a heteropolymer was numerically investigated by the microcanonical analysis method. We demonstrated that the microcanonical entropy shows the features of one or multiple convexes in the association transition region depending on the number and distribution of hydrophobic segments in the chain. We found that one or multiple negative specific heats imply a first-order-like transition with the coexistence of multiple phases.