State-of-the-Art Capability of Convolutional Neural Networks to Distinguish the Signal in the Ionosphere.

Recovering and distinguishing different ionospheric layers and signals usually requires slow and complicated procedures. In this work, we construct and train five convolutional neural network (CNN) models: DeepLab, fully convolutional DenseNet24 (FC-DenseNet24), deep watershed transform (DWT), Mask R-CNN, and spatial attention-UNet (SA-UNet) for the recovery of ionograms. The performance of the models is evaluated by intersection over union (IoU). We collect and manually label 6131 ionograms, which are acquired from a low-latitude ionosonde in Taiwan. These ionograms are contaminated by strong quasi-static noise, with an average signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) equal to 1.4. Applying the five models to these noisy ionograms, we show that the models can recover useful signals with IoU > 0.6. The highest accuracy is achieved by SA-UNet. For signals with less than 15% of samples in the data set, they can be recovered by Mask R-CNN to some degree (IoU > 0.2). In addition to the number of samples, we identify and examine the effects of three factors: (1) SNR, (2) shape of signal, (3) overlapping of signals on the recovery accuracy of different models. Our results indicate that FC-DenseNet24, DWT, Mask R-CNN and SA-UNet are capable of identifying signals from very noisy ionograms (SNR < 1.4), overlapping signals can be well identified by DWT, Mask R-CNN and SA-UNet, and that more elongated signals are better identified by all models.

Recovery of Ionospheric Signals Using Fully Convolutional DenseNet and Its Challenges.

The technique of active ionospheric sounding by ionosondes requires sophisticated methods for the recovery of experimental data on ionograms. In this work, we applied an advanced algorithm of deep learning for the identification and classification of signals from different ionospheric layers. We collected a dataset of 6131 manually labeled ionograms acquired from low-latitude ionosondes in Taiwan. In the ionograms, we distinguished 11 different classes of the signals according to their ionospheric layers. We developed an artificial neural network, FC-DenseNet24, based on the FC-DenseNet convolutional neural network. We also developed a double-filtering algorithm to reduce incorrectly classified signals. That made it possible to successfully recover the sporadic E layer and the F2 layer from highly noise-contaminated ionograms whose mean signal-to-noise ratio was low, SNR = 1.43. The Intersection over Union (IoU) of the recovery of these two signal classes was greater than 0.6, which was higher than the previous models reported. We also identified three factors that can lower the recovery accuracy: (1) smaller statistics of samples; (2) mixing and overlapping of different signals; (3) the compact shape of signals.