Economic valuation of a mesocarnivore's impact management.

Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have interacted with humans during their common history. We used a contingent valuation method to assess the economic value of the management of this mesocarnivore's negative impacts. We carried out face-to-face interviews with 746 Greek residents, using a multiple-bounded discrete choice approach to estimate willingness to pay (WTP) for red fox management under three impact situations: attack domestic animals, reduce game, carry disease. About 51.9%, 33.0%, and 81.1% of the respondents stated a mean WTP of €34.1, €44.9, and €72.1 for each situation, respectively. The total annual amounts of €18.7 million, €15.7 million, and €61.7 million could be collected from the target population for red fox management when they attack domestic animals, reduce game, and carry disease, respectively. Attitudes and likeability toward foxes were negatively associated while knowledge about foxes and fear of them were positively associated with WTP. The younger, richer, less educated, rural, farmers, hunters, and pet owners were generally more willing to pay for red fox management across situations. Females were more willing to pay for managing predation on domestic animals, while males were more willing to pay for managing predation on game. Our findings showed that the Greek residents highly value the management of red foxes in all impact situations and would be valuable for further advising the management process.

Economic Valuation of Balkan Chamois Conservation.

The Balkan chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra balcanica) is a caprine of the rocky mountain slopes, threatened in Greece by illegal hunting and population isolation. We used a contingent valuation method to assess the willingness to pay (WTP) for chamois conservation of 500 residents of the region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace. Most of the participants (61.6%) were WTP a mean of EUR 41.6 for chamois conservation, totaling EUR 6.03 million for the target population. Attitudes toward and knowledge about chamois, moralistic worldviews (spiritual reverence and ethical concern for nature and wildlife), participation in wildlife-related consumptive outdoor activities (i.e., hunting and fishing), intention to participate in conservation actions for the species, and encounters with the species in the wild were positively associated with WTP for its conservation. Dominionistic worldviews (humans have mastery, physical control, and dominance of wildlife) were negatively associated with WTP, while highly educated females with high income were more WTP for implementing relevant conservation actions. Factors involving previous knowledge of the chamois positively influenced the WTP, thus, confirming the construct's bias toward charismatic species. The findings show that Greek residents highly value the chamois and its conservation and would be useful for advising this process and achieving its conservation management.

Public attitudes towards venomous and non-venomous snakes.

Snakes are integral components of ecosystems, being both predators and prey. They also provide valuable ecosystem services to people, such as rodent control, bushmeat, and leather goods. Although these positive services have been recognized, people are generally wary of snakes, because some species possess and release venom to immobilize prey. Therefore, understanding peoples' attitudes towards non-venomous and venomous snakes would be critical for their successful conservation. We carried out on-site face-to-face surveys with Greek residents (n = 897) to study their attitudes towards non-venomous and venomous snakes using a nine-statement attitudinal instrument. Survey participants had higher mutualism than domination wildlife value orientation and could more correctly identify the venomosity of venomous than non-venomous snake species. Factor analysis determined two general attitudes: tolerance and conservation. Participants were intolerant of snakes, while they generally supported their conservation, for both non-venomous and venomous species. However, their attitudes were more positive towards non-venomous than venomous snakes. Mutualism was a positive predictor of tolerance and conservation for non-venomous snakes, but only of conservation for venomous snakes. Domination was a negative predictor of conservation for both venomosity groups. Knowledge of snake venomosity was a positive predictor of tolerance and conservation for non-venomous snakes, and a negative predictor of tolerance for venomous snakes. Our findings not only indicated that the pubic differentiated attitudes towards snakes based on their venomosity but also, importantly, allowed for determining groups holding positive or negative attitudes towards snakes based on wildlife value orientations and the ability to evaluate snake venomosity. Such information further indicated that successful education and outreach plans should be venomosity and public group specific, aiming at increasing the pro-conservationist attitudes towards snakes, especially of those domination-oriented and unable to distinguish non-venomous from venomous snakes, thus promoting and ultimately securing the future survival of these controversial animals.

Patch, matrix and disturbance variables negatively influence bird community structure in small-sized managed green spaces located in urban core areas.

Patch, matrix and human-induced disturbance variables are important in determining the structure of urban bird communities. Although green spaces in urban core areas are usually small and disturbed, they can be important for local bird diversity. Because such areas are often overlooked, their study is critical for successfully incorporating biodiversity conservation in urban planning. Furthermore, comparing bird communities from different biogeographical areas would help identify generalizable patterns and propose common management actions. We compared the structure of breeding season bird assemblages of managed small public green spaces in the urban core areas of two similar-sized European cities, Kavala (Greece) and Rovaniemi (Finland), and studied the influence of environmental variables on community structure. Species composition differed between the cities. Abundance and evenness were higher in Kavala, while richness and diversity did not differ between the cities. Abundance did not respond in a general way to the same variables in the two cities. It increased with decreasing shrub cover and distance from the city center and with increasing midday noise and ground cover in Kavala, but increased with increasing distance from the city center and decreased with increasing car traffic and midday noise in Rovaniemi. This might be explained by the lower abundance of bird dwellers in Rovaniemi. Primarily gray cover, but also other variables, at both the patch and matrix levels (e.g., noise, car traffic, distance from the city center), negatively affected richness, evenness and diversity in both cities. Green space size was positively correlated with richness and diversity in Kavala, but not in Rovaniemi, possibly due to the smaller size variation in Rovaniemi. Results emphasized that increasing gray cover is harmful for birds in small-sized green spaces in urban core areas. However, urban managers should note that not all bird community metrics responded in similar ways to same environmental variables.

Differences in encounters, likeability and desirability of wildlife species among residents of a Greek city.

Urbanization is ever-increasing worldwide and urban green spaces and their associated wildlife are becoming critically important for human well-being. Understanding public preferences for urban wildlife would allow urban planners and managers for designing successful management plans. 600 Greek urban residents were asked to rate their frequency of encounters, likeability and desirability to encounter more often 30 urban wildlife taxa. Factor analysis identified three groups varying in degree of encounters, likeability and desirability. The most likeable species were also the most desirable (butterfly, songbird, duck, tortoise, squirrel, feral pigeon, hedgehog, heron, little owl). Structural models revealed that likeability was the most significant and positive predictor of desirability, in all identified species desirability groups: desirable, undesirable and indifferent. Participation in environmental lifestyle and conservation actions and support of animal welfare were generally positive predictors of encounters, likeability and desirability in all identified groups. Age was a significant negative predictor of encounters in the desirable and undesirable groups, of likeability in the desirable group and of desirability in the indifferent group. Females liked more than males the desirable species, and less than males the undesirable and indifferent species, encountered more often than males the undesirable and indifferent species, and wished to encounter less often the undesirable species. More educated participants liked the indifferent species more than those less educated, while the former also wished to encounter the undesirable species more often than the latter. Pet owners encountered all species more often than non-pet owners, liked more the indifferent species and wished to encounter more often the desirable species than non-pet owners. Our findings revealed public preferences for wildlife species in urban green spaces. This information would be valuable for managing urban wildlife for the benefit of both people and wildlife, in the study area and elsewhere, especially in areas where similar species occur.

The two faces of Janus, or the dual mode of public attitudes towards snakes.

Snakes are controversial animals, therefore a better understanding of public attitudes is critical for their effective protection and future survival. The attitudes towards snakes of 951 adults in Greece were investigated in personal interviews. Factor analysis revealed a dual mode of attitudes: respondents were highly intolerant of snakes, while they supported their conservation at the same time. Respondents had high knowledge about the behavior of snakes, medium knowledge of their biology and were strongly affected by folklore. Structural models revealed that tolerance was a positive mediator of conservation. Knowledge about snake behavior and biology was positively correlated with attitudes towards snakes. Moralistic and naturalistic attitudes were positively, and dominionistic attitudes negatively, correlated with snake tolerance and conservation attitudes. Younger, more educated people were more snake-tolerant than older, less educated people. Females were less snake-tolerant and more conservation-oriented than males. These findings increased the understanding of human attitudes towards snakes and helped identify factors critical for their conservation. As such they could be used to design environmental education programs incorporating both information-based and experiential activities that will improve attitudes, behaviors and, eventually, the chances for the survival of these uncharismatic animals.

Effects of attitudes and demography on public support for endangered species conservation.

It is critical for managers to understand how attitudes and demography affect public's preferences for species protection for designing successful conservation projects. 1080 adults in Greece were asked to rate pictures of 12 endangered species on aesthetic and negativistic attitudes, and intention to support their conservation. Factor analysis identified a group of animals for which respondents indicated high levels of support for their conservation (red deer, loggerhead sea turtle, brown bear, common pheasant, European ground squirrel, glossy ibis) and a group of animals for which respondents indicated low levels of support (black vulture, great white shark, fire-bellied toad, western barbastelle, Cretan tube web spider, Milos viper). The species that received the highest support were also rated as the most attractive and safest, excluding the fearsome brown bear. Structural models revealed that aesthetic, moralistic and negativistic attitudes were the stronger predictors of support. Aesthetic and moralistic attitudes were positively, and negativistic attitudes negatively, correlated with support for conservation in both groups. Consumptive users scored lower in aesthetics and were less supportive of protection in the high support group, while nonconsumptive users showed the opposite trend. Respondents residing in urban areas deemed animals of high support more attractive and less fearsome and were more supportive of conservation than rural residents in both groups. Females of higher education viewed animals of low support as fearsome, however they supported their conservation. Our study identified popular species that can be used as flagship species to facilitate the implementation of conservation projects. The results of this study could also be used to design a communication and outreach campaign to raise awareness about the ecosystem value of less attractive species.

Public acceptance of management methods under different human-wildlife conflict scenarios.

Wildlife management seeks to minimise public controversy for successful application of wildlife control methods. Human dimensions research in wildlife seeks a better understanding of public preferences for effective human-wildlife conflict resolution. In face to face interviews, 630 adults in Greece were asked to rate on a 5-point Likert-like scale their acceptance of 3 management methods, i.e., do nothing, non-lethal control, and lethal control, in the context of 5 human-wildlife conflict scenarios: 1) corvids damage crops; 2) starlings damage crops; 3) starlings foul urban structures; 4) coypus damage crops; and 5) coypus transfer disease. Univariate GLMs determined occupation, hunting membership and their interaction as the stronger predictors of public acceptance, generating 4 stakeholder groups: the general public, farmers, hunters, and farmers-hunters. Differences in acceptance and consensus among stakeholder groups were assessed using the Potential for Conflict Index2 (PCI2). All 4 stakeholder groups agreed that doing nothing was unacceptable and non-lethal control acceptable in all 5 scenarios, with generally high consensus within and between groups. The lethal control method was more controversial and became increasingly more acceptable as the severity of scenarios was increased and between non-native and native species. Lethal control was unacceptable for the general public in all scenarios. Farmers accepted lethal methods in the corvids and starlings scenarios, were neutral in the coypus damage crops scenario, whereas they accepted lethal control when coypus transfer disease. Hunters' opinion was neutral in the corvids, starlings and coypus damage crops and starlings foul urban structures scenarios, but they accepted lethal methods in the coypus transfer disease scenario. Farmers-hunters considered lethal control acceptable in all 5 scenarios. Implications from this study could be used for designing a socio-ecological approach which incorporates wildlife management with public interests. The studied species have a wide distribution, therefore present findings might also prove useful elsewhere.

Mercury in white stork (Ciconia ciconia) chick feathers from northeastern Mediterranean areas in relation to age, brood size, and hatching order.

Mercury (Hg) levels in white stork (Ciconia ciconia) feathers collected in the mid-1990s from five northeastern Mediterranean (Greece) areas varied, with mean ranges between 301 ng g(-1) dry weight (dw) (Pinios River) and 1911 ng g(-1) dw (Sperchios Delta). A significant increase of Hg levels in chick feathers with age (surrogated by bill size) was found in the Evros and Pinios River areas, a nonsignificant increase in the Amvrakikos Gulf and the Epirus Region, and a marginally significant decrease in the Sperchios Delta area. For combined data of 1993 and 1995, Hg concentrations did not differ significantly in relation to hatching order among broods but differed significantly in relation to brood size being higher in 4-chick broods than those in 3-chick broods. All 10 areas formed 4 groups with levels mutually significantly different. Highest levels were detected in the Evros, Axios, and Sperchios riverine areas, whereas the lowest levels occurred at Drama plain, which lacks large water bodies in its vicinity. Levels were lower than those associated with intoxication to other ciconiiform species.