Effect of levels-of-processing on rates of forgetting.

The levels-of-processing (LOP) framework, proposing that deep processing yields superior retention, has provided an important paradigm for memory research and a practical means of improving learning. However, the available levels-of-processing literature focuses on immediate memory performance. It is assumed within the LOP framework that deep processing will lead to slower forgetting than will shallow processing. However, it is unclear whether, or how, the initial level of processing affects the forgetting slopes over longer retention intervals. The present three experiments were designed to explore whether items encoded at qualitatively different LOP are forgotten at different rates. In the first two experiments, depth of processing was manipulated within-participants at encoding under deep and shallow conditions (semantic vs. rhyme judgement in Experiment 1; semantic vs. consonant-vowel pattern decision in Experiment 2). Recognition accuracy (d prime) was measured between-participants immediately after learning and at 30-min, 2-h, and 24-h delays. The third experiment employed a between-participants design, contrasting the rates of forgetting following semantic and phonological (rhyme) processing at immediate, 30-min, 2-h, and 6-h delays. Results from the three experiments consistently demonstrated a large effect size of levels of processing on immediate performance and a medium-to-large level effect size on delayed recognition, but crucially no LOP × delay group interaction. Analysis of the retention curves revealed no significant differences between the slopes of forgetting for deep and shallow processing. These results suggest that the rates of forgetting are independent of the qualitatively distinct encoding operations manipulated by levels of processing.

Strategies, debates, and adversarial collaboration in working memory: The 51st Bartlett Lecture.

Frederic Bartlett championed the importance of individual strategy differences when remembering details of events. I will describe how long-running theoretical debates in the area of working memory may be resolved by considering differences across participants in the strategies that they use when performing cognitive tasks, and through adversarial collaboration between rival laboratories. In common with the established view within experimental cognitive psychology, I assume that adults have a range of cognitive functions, evolved for everyday life. However, I will present evidence showing that these functions can be engaged selectively for laboratory tasks, and that how they are deployed may differ between and within individuals for the same task. Reliance on aggregate data, while treating inter- and intra-participant variability in data patterns as statistical noise, may lead to misleading conclusions about theoretical principles of cognition, and of working memory in particular. Moreover, different theoretical perspectives may be focused on different levels of explanation and different theoretical goals rather than being mutually incompatible. Yet researchers from contrasting theoretical frameworks pursue science as a competition, rarely do researchers from competing labs work in collaboration, and debates self-perpetuate. These approaches to research can stall debate resolution and generate ever-increasing scientific diversity rather than scientific progress. The article concludes by describing a recent extended adversarial collaboration (the WoMAAC project) focused on theoretical contrasts in working memory, and illustrates how this approach to conducting research may help resolve scientific debate and facilitate scientific advance.

Time sharing in working memory processing.

Although working memory (WM) is usually defined as a cognitive system coordinating processing and storage in the short term, in most WM models, memory aspects have been developed more fully than processing systems, and many studies of WM tasks have tended to focus on memory performance. The present study investigated WM functioning without focusing exclusively on short-term memory performance by presenting participants with an n-back task on letters, n varying from 0 to 2, each letter being followed by a tone discrimination task involving from one to three tones. Predictions regarding the reciprocal effects of these tasks on each other were motivated by the time-based resource-sharing (TBRS) theoretical framework for WM that assumes the temporal sharing of attention between processing and memory. Although, as predicted, increasing the n value had a detrimental effect on tone discrimination in terms of accuracy and response times, and increasing the number of tones disrupted speed and accuracy on n-back performance, the overall pattern of results did not perfectly fit the TBRS predictions. Nonetheless, the main alternative models of WM do not seem to offer a complete account. The present findings point toward the need to use a larger range of tasks and situations in designing and testing models of WM. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Forgetting rates of gist and peripheral episodic details in prose recall.

In a seminal study, Slamecka and McElree showed that the degree of initial learning of verbal material affected the intercepts but not the slopes of forgetting curves. However, more recent work has reported that memories for central events (gist) and memory for secondary details (peripheral) were forgotten at different rates over periods of days, with gist memory retained more consistently over time than details. The present experiments aimed to investigate whether qualitatively different types of memory scoring (gist vs. peripheral) are forgotten at different rates in prose recall. In three experiments, 232 participants listened to two prose narratives and were subsequently asked to freely recall the stories. In the first two experiments participants were tested repeatedly after days and a month, while in the third experiment they were tested only after a month to control for repeated retrieval. Memory for gist was higher than for peripheral details, which were forgotten at a faster rate over a month, with or without the presence of intermediate recall. Moreover, repeated retrieval had a significant benefit on both memory for gist and peripheral details. We conclude that the different nature of gist and peripheral details leads to a differential forgetting in prose free recall, while repeated retrieval does not have a differential effect on the retention of these different episodic details.

Short-term memory conjunctive binding in Alzheimer's disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: Short-term memory (STM) binding tests assess the ability to temporarily hold conjunctions between surface features, such as objects and their colors (i.e., feature binding condition), relative to the ability to hold the individual features (i.e., single feature condition). Impairments in performance of these tests have been considered cognitive markers of Alzheimer's disease (AD). The objective of the present study was to conduct a meta-analysis of results from STM binding tests used in the assessment of samples mapped along the AD clinical continuum. METHOD: We searched PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science for articles that assessed patients with AD (from preclinical to dementia) using the STM binding tests and compared their results with those of controls. From each relevant article, we extracted the number of participants, the mean and standard deviations from single feature and of feature binding conditions. Results across studies were combined using standardized mean differences (effect sizes) to produce overall estimates of effect. RESULTS: The feature binding condition of the STM binding showed large effects in all stages of AD. However, small sample sizes across studies, the presence of moderate to high heterogeneity and cross-sectional, case-controls designs decreased our confidence in the current evidence. CONCLUSIONS: To be considered as a cognitive marker for AD, properly powered longitudinal designs and studies that clearly relate conjunctive memory tests with biomarkers (amyloid and tau) are still needed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Strategic adaptation to dual-task in verbal working memory: Potential routes for theory integration.

How working memory supports dual-task performance is the focus of a long-standing debate. Most previous research on this topic has focused on participant performance data. In three experiments, we investigated whether changes in participant-reported strategies across single- and dual-task conditions might help resolve this debate by offering new insights that lead to fruitful integration of theories rather than perpetuating debate by attempting to identify which theory best fits the data. Results indicated that articulatory suppression was associated with reduced reports of the use of rehearsal and clustering strategies but to an increase of the reported use of a visual strategy. Elaboration and clustering strategies were reported less for memory under dual task compared with single task. Under both dual task and articulatory suppression, more participants reported attempting to remember fewer memory items than were presented (memory reduction strategy). For arithmetic verification, articulatory suppression and dual task resulted in a reduction in reports of a counting strategy and an increase in reports of a retrieval strategy for arithmetic knowledge. It is argued that experimenters should not assume that participants perform the same task in the same way under different experimental conditions and that carefulty investigation of how participants change their strategies in response to changes in experimental conditions has considerable potential for resolving theoretical challenges. It is argued further that this approach points toward the value of attempting to integrate rather than proliferate theories of working memory. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Long-term learning and forgetting of feature binding in verbal free recall.

Temporary feature bindings can be learned under specific experimental conditions. However, how this learning occurs and how it is forgotten over long intervals is unclear. We addressed this question with repeated presentation of an array of coloured shapes followed by verbal free recall after delays of 1 day, 1 week, and 1 month. A total of 120 participants viewed 24 repetitions of the same study array of six objects each with two features (shape and colour). After 24 trials, 61 participants reported becoming aware of the repetition while 59 reported being unaware. Memory performance improved across trials, with aware participants showing faster learning than unaware participants whose performance appeared to reflect the capacity of short-term visual memory across all repetitions. Both aware and unaware participants recalled some of the array after their allocated delay, showing that learning had occurred during repetition trials, even for unaware participants who showed little or no improvement across 24 repetition trials. Memory for binding showed no change after 1 day compared with performance on the 24th repetition trial, was significantly lower for participants tested after 1 week, and was lower still for those tested after 1 month. Findings are interpreted as consistent with both a short-term, limited capacity visual cache that supports performance during early repetition trials, before learning can have occurred, and gradual strengthening across trials of an episodic long-term memory trace that supports learning. If the episodic trace exceeds the threshold of awareness, this accelerates learning.

Long-term memory for spatial frequency: a non-replication.

Reports on stability of spatial frequency in short-term memory span have confirmed low-level perceptual memory mechanism in early visual processing. However, some studies have also claimed evidence for high-fidelity perceptual long-term storage of spatial frequency. We report an attempted replication of Magnussen et al. (Psychol Sci 14:74-76, 2003) where participants were asked to discriminate the spatial frequency of a reference grating from a test stimulus after intervals of 5 s or 24 h. Group thresholds after 24 h were significantly higher than after 5 s, therefore failing to support long-term storage of spatial frequency.

The effect of selective retrieval practice on forgetting rates in younger and older adults.

Recent findings demonstrate that selective retrieval practice (SRP), specifically the retrieval of subparts of material, not just retrieval of the entire encoded material, can enhance later memory performance. We present two experiments that investigated whether SRP enhances memory performance among older adults. We also examined to what extent this effect is enhanced by the level of integration of the studied material. We used a design that contrasts the performance of the groups in conditions with and without SRP. This design also allowed us to examine whether older adults present with faster forgetting compared to younger individuals when assessed over a long delay. In both experiments, participants were exposed to a learning phase in which they had to achieve a criterion of 70% correct recall and were then tested at 1 month. The SRP for the experimental group occurred 1 day and 1 week after the learning phase (the control group received no SRP). None of the items at 1-month delay was probed in the retrieval practice. Experiment 1 used integrated material (four short stories). Experiment 2 used less integrated material (16 sentences). Both age groups showed a decline in memory performance over 1 month, however, groups tested repeatedly showed better performance (irrespective of age or material). (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploring the influence of temporal factors on age differences in working memory dual task costs.

Working memory is defined by many as the system that allows us to simultaneously store information over brief time periods while engaging in other information processing activities. In a previous study (Rhodes, Jaroslawska et al. (2019) Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148, 1204-1227.) we found that retention of serially presented letters was disrupted by the introduction of an arithmetic processing task during a 10 second delay period. Importantly, the magnitude of this dual task disruption increased with age from 18 to 81. The demands of each task were adjusted prior to dual task so that age differences did not reflect baseline differences in single task performance. Motivated by these findings, theories of working memory, and additional analyses of processing reaction times from this previous experiment, we report two experiments, using the same tasks and adjustment procedure, attempting to modulate the magnitude of age differences in dual task effects via manipulations focused on time for encoding to-be-remembered material. Providing a delay prior to processing activities, to facilitate switching between the two tasks, did not modulate age differences. Neither did separating the to-be-remembered material temporally, to allow for the creation of more distinct representations. These findings provide two replications of our initial finding and suggest that age differences in working memory dual tasking are not due to limitations in the speed of encoding. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

What affects the magnitude of age-related dual-task costs in working memory? The role of stimulus domain and access to semantic representations.

Although there is evidence that the effect of including a concurrent processing demand on the storage of information in working memory is disproportionately larger for older than younger adults, not all studies show this age-related impairment, and the critical factors responsible for any such impairment remain elusive. Here we assess whether domain overlap between storage and processing activities, and access to semantic representations, are important determinants of performance in a sample of younger and older adults (N = 119). We developed four versions of a processing task by manipulating the type of stimuli involved (either verbal or non-verbal) and the decision that participants had to make about the stimuli presented on the screen. Participants either had to perform a spatial judgement, in deciding whether the verbal or non-verbal item was presented above or below the centre of the screen, or a semantic judgement, in deciding whether the stimulus refers to something living or not living. The memory task was serial-ordered recall of visually presented letters. The study revealed a large increase in age-related memory differences when concurrent processing was required. These differences were smaller when storage and processing activities both used verbal materials. Dual-task effects on processing were also disproportionate for older adults. Age differences in processing performance appeared larger for tasks requiring spatial decisions rather than semantic decisions. We discuss these findings in relation to three competing frameworks of working memory and the extant literature on cognitive ageing.

How Do Scientific Views Change? Notes From an Extended Adversarial Collaboration.

There are few examples of an extended adversarial collaboration, in which investigators committed to different theoretical views collaborate to test opposing predictions. Whereas previous adversarial collaborations have produced single research articles, here, we share our experience in programmatic, extended adversarial collaboration involving three laboratories in different countries with different theoretical views regarding working memory, the limited information retained in mind, serving ongoing thought and action. We have focused on short-term memory retention of items (letters) during a distracting task (arithmetic), and effects of aging on these tasks. Over several years, we have conducted and published joint research with preregistered predictions, methods, and analysis plans, with replication of each study across two laboratories concurrently. We argue that, although an adversarial collaboration will not usually induce senior researchers to abandon favored theoretical views and adopt opposing views, it will necessitate varieties of their views that are more similar to one another, in that they must account for a growing, common corpus of evidence. This approach promotes understanding of others' views and presents to the field research findings accepted as valid by researchers with opposing interpretations. We illustrate this process with our own research experiences and make recommendations applicable to diverse scientific areas.

Cognitive aging and verbal labeling in continuous visual memory.

The decline of working memory (WM) is a common feature of general cognitive decline, and visual and verbal WM capacity appear to decline at different rates with age. Visual material may be remembered via verbal codes or visual traces, or both. Souza and Skóra, Cognition, 166, 277-297 (2017) found that labeling boosted memory in younger adults by activating categorical visual long-term memory (LTM) knowledge. Here, we replicated this and tested whether it held in healthy older adults. We compared performance in silence, under instructed overt labeling (participants were asked to say color names out loud), and articulatory suppression (repeating irrelevant syllables to prevent labeling) in the delayed estimation paradigm. Overt labeling improved memory performance in both age groups. However, comparing the effect of overt labeling and suppression on the number of coarse, categorical representations in the two age groups suggested that older adults used verbal labels subvocally more than younger adults, when performing the task in silence. Older adults also appeared to benefit from labels differently than younger adults. In younger adults labeling appeared to improve visual, continuous memory, suggesting that labels activated visual LTM representations. However, for older adults, labels did not appear to enhance visual, continuous representations, but instead boosted memory via additional verbal (categorical) memory traces. These results challenged the assumption that visual memory paradigms measure the same cognitive ability in younger and older adults, and highlighted the importance of controlling differences in age-related strategic preferences in visual memory tasks.

Strategy mediation in working memory training in younger and older adults.

Working memory (WM) training with the N-Back task has been argued to improve cognitive capacity and general cognitive abilities (the Capacity Hypothesis of training), although several studies have shown little or no evidence for such improvements beyond tasks that are very similar to the trained task. Laine et al. demonstrated that instructing young adult participants to use a specific visualisation strategy for N-back training resulted in clear, generalised benefits from only 30 min of training (Strategy Mediation Hypothesis of training). Here, we report a systematic replication and extension of the Laine et al. study, by administering 60 younger and 60 older participants a set of WM tasks before and after a 30-min N-back training session. Half the participants were instructed to use a visualisation strategy, the others received no instruction. The pre-post test battery encompassed a criterion task (digit N-back), two untrained tasks N-back tasks (letters and colours), and three structurally different WM tasks. The instructed visualisation strategy significantly boosted at least some measures of N-back performance in participants of both age groups, although the strategy generally appeared more difficult to implement and less beneficial for older adults. However, the strategy did not improve performance on structurally different WM tasks. We also found significant associations between N-back performance and the type and level of detail of self-generated strategies in the uninstructed participants, as well as age group differences in reported strategy types. WM performance appeared to partly reflect the application of strategies, and Strategy Mediation should be considered to understand the mechanisms of WM training. Claims of efficient training should demonstrate useful improvement beyond task-specific strategies.

Forgetting in Alzheimer's disease: Is it fast? Is it affected by repeated retrieval?

OBJECTIVES: Whether people with Alzheimer's Disease present with accelerated long term forgetting compared to healthy controls is still debated. Typically, accelerated long term forgetting implies testing the same participants repeatedly over several delays. This testing method raises the issue of confounding repetition effects with forgetting rates. We used a novel procedure to disentangle the two effects. METHODS: Four short stories were presented during an initial in-person assessment of 40 patients with Alzheimer's Disease and 42 age-matched healthy controls. Our aim was for participants to reach a score of 70% correct (9 out of 13 questions) at encoding. If this criterion was not achieved after the first trial, the four stories were presented again (in a different order); participants took the 1 min filler task again and were then retested. We repeated this process until participants reached the 70% criterion or to a maximum of four trials. Cued recall memory tests were completed during follow-up telephone call(s) at different delay intervals. Study material was presented only at encoding, then probed with different question sets on all other delays. Each question set tested different sub-parts of the material. The experiment employed a mixed design. Participants were randomly allocated to either a condition without retrieval practice or a condition with retrieval practice. Participants in the condition without retrieval practice were only tested at two delays: post encoding filled delay and at one month. Participants in the condition with retrieval practice were tested at four delays: post encoding filled delay, one day, one week and one month. Our methodological design allowed us to separate the effects of retesting from the effects of delay. RESULTS: Alzheimer's Disease patients showed a significant encoding deficit reflected in the higher number of trials required to reach criterion. Using Linear Mixed Models, we found no group by delay interactions between the post encoding filled delay retrieval and one month delays, with Alzheimer's Disease groups having a similar decline in performance to healthy controls, irrespective of testing condition. Significant condition by delay interactions were found for both groups (Alzheimer's Disease and healthy controls), with better performance at one month in the condition with retrieval practice. CONCLUSIONS: Our data showed that Alzheimer's Disease is not characterised by accelerated long term forgetting, patients in our sample forgot at the same rate as healthy controls. Given the additional trials required by Alzheimer's patients to reach the 70% correct criterion, their memory impairment appears to be one of encoding. Moreover, Alzheimer's Disease patients benefited from repeated testing to the same extent as healthy controls. Due to our methodological design, we were also able to show that performance improved under repeated testing conditions, even with partial testing (sampling different features from each narrative on every test session/delay) in both healthy controls and Alzheimer's Disease.

Aging and feature-binding in visual working memory: The role of verbal rehearsal.

Age-related decline in ability to bind and remember conjunctions of features has been proposed as an explanation for the pronounced decline of visual working memory (WM) in healthy aging. However, evidence that older adults exhibit greater visual feature-binding deficits than younger adults has been mixed. Binding deficits in older adults are often observed using paradigms with easy-to-label features. Labeling and rehearsing single features may result in apparent binding deficits if older adults rely on comparatively intact verbal memory to compensate for declining visual WM. This strategy would be more useful for single features (e.g., "red"), than for conjunctions of features (e.g., "red triangle"), which are more cumbersome to rehearse, and thus visual feature-binding paradigms that do not prevent verbal strategies may unintentionally measure verbal load differences. Across 3 experiments (total N = 150), we investigated the role of verbal rehearsal by manipulating ease of stimulus labeling for visually presented single features and conjunctions of 2 features. Overall, visual memory for difficult-to-label, noncategorical, visual information appeared especially limited for older adults, likely because it impedes engagement of other systems, such as verbal WM or long-term memory. Therefore, comparing younger- and older-adult task performance may not straightforwardly reveal age-related visual WM decline, but instead reflect applications of different strategies that tap different cognitive mechanisms. We discuss implications for the feature-binding literature and the wider visual WM literature. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Converging sources of evidence and theory integration in working memory: A commentary on Morey, Rhodes, and Cowan (2019).

Morey et al. (2019) offer a critique of the dominance of the multiple component framework of working memory in the interpretation of patterns of impairment and sparing in individuals with focal brain damage associated with specific impairments of immediate, serial-ordered verbal recall. They argue that the lack of pure cases of verbal short-term memory impairments, that recognition performance is higher than recall in such patients, that digits are remembered better than other verbal material, and that problems with replicability in patient studies undermine this traditional theoretical interpretation of the impairments from which these patients suffer. They further speculate that an alternative theoretical framework for working memory, incorporating embedded processes and perception-action links offers a more plausible account of the data from these patients. This commentary points to a range of errors and misconceptions in the arguments presented, notably that such patients are not as rare as suggested, that their recognition is actually no better than their recall, that digits offer substantial advantages for memory, and that results have been shown to be replicable between and within individuals. It is proposed that attempts to integrate more recent theoretical developments in working memory with those shown previously to be highly successful in accounting for impairments in these patients, and for generating hypotheses and accounts across a wide range of contexts may be a more fruitful approach to advancing understanding of cognition in the healthy and damaged brain.

The Effect of a Verbal Concurrent Task on Visual Precision in Working Memory.

By investigating the effect of individualized verbal load on a visual working memory task, we investigated whether working memory is better captured by modality-specific stores or a general attentional resource. A visual measure was used that allows for the precision of representations in working memory to be quantified. Bayesian analyses were employed to contrast the likelihood of our data assuming a small versus a large effect, as predicted by the differing accounts. We found evidence that the effect of verbal load on visual precision and binary feature recall was small. The results were indeterminate for the size of the dual task effect on verbal accuracy and the probability of recalling a continuous target feature. These results, in part, support a multiple component account of working memory. An analysis of how the chosen effect intervals affect the results is also reported, highlighting the importance of making specific predictions in the literature.

Storage and processing in working memory: Assessing dual-task performance and task prioritization across the adult lifespan.

There is a theoretical disagreement in the working memory literature, with some proposing that the storage and processing of information rely on distinct parts of the cognitive system and others who posit that they rely, to some extent, on a shared attentional capacity. This debate is mirrored in the literature on working memory and aging, where there have been mixed findings on the ability of older adults to perform simultaneous storage and processing tasks. We assess the overlap between storage and processing and how this changes with age using a procedure in which both tasks have been carefully adjusted to produce comparable levels of single-task performance across a sample (N = 164) of participants aged 18-81. By manipulating incentives to perform one task over the other, this procedure was also capable of disentangling concurrence costs (single- vs. dual-task performance) from prioritization costs (relative payoffs for storage vs. processing performance) in a theoretically meaningful manner. The study revealed a large general cost to serial letter recall performance associated with concurrent performance of an arithmetic verification processing task, a concurrence cost that increased with age. For the processing task, there was no such general concurrence cost. Rather, there was a prioritization effect in dual-task performance for both tasks, irrespective of age, in which performance levels depended on the relative emphasis assigned to memory versus processing. This prioritization effect was large, albeit with a large residual in performance. The findings place important constraints on both working memory theory and our understanding of how working memory changes across the adult lifespan. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).