Cellular Uptake and Transport Mechanism Investigations of PEGylated Niosomes for Improving the Oral Delivery of Thymopentin.

BACKGROUND: Although its immunomodulatory properties make thymopentin (TP5) appealing, its rapid metabolism and inactivation in the digestive system pose significant challenges for global scientists. PEGylated niosomal nanocarriers are hypothesized to improve the physicochemical stability of TP5, and to enhance its intestinal permeability for oral administration. METHODS: TP5-loaded PEGylated niosomes were fabricated using the thin film hydration method. Co-cultured Caco-2 and HT29 cells with different ratios were screened as in vitro intestinal models. The cytotoxicity of TP5 and its formulations were evaluated using an MTT assay. The cellular uptake and transport studies were investigated in the absence or presence of variable inhibitors or enhancers, and their mechanisms were explored. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: All TP5 solutions and their niosomal formulations were nontoxic to Caco-2 and HT-29 cells. The uptake of TP5-PEG-niosomes by cells relied on active endocytosis, exhibiting dependence on time, energy, and concentration, which has the potential to significantly enhance its cellular uptake compared to TP5 in solution. Nevertheless, cellular transport rates were similar between TP5 in solution and its niosomal groups. The cellular transport of TP5 in solution was carried out mainly through MRP5 endocytosis and a passive pathway and effluxed by MRP5 transporters, while that of TP5-niosomes and TP5-PEG-niosomes was carried out through adsorptive- and clathrin-mediated endocytosis requiring energy. The permeability and transport rate was further enhanced when EDTA and sodium taurocholate were used as the penetration enhancers. CONCLUSIONS: This research has illustrated that PEG-niosomes were able to enhance the cellular uptake and maintain the cellular transport of TP5. This study also shows this formulation's potential to serve as an effective carrier for improving the oral delivery of peptides.

Group A Streptococcus Pili-Roles in Pathogenesis and Potential for Vaccine Development.

The Gram-positive human pathogen Group A Streptococcus (GAS, Streptococcus pyogenes) employs an arsenal of virulence factors that contribute to its pathogenesis. The pilus is an important factor that enables the pathogen to adhere to and colonize host tissues. Emerging research in pilus function shows that pili's involvement in establishing infection extends beyond host adhesion. The diversity of GAS pilus types reflect the varying characteristics identified in different pili. With the development of new experimental systems and animal models, a wider range of biological functions have been explored. This brief review summarizes recent reports of new functions in different GAS pilus types and the methodologies that contributed to the findings. The established importance of the pilus in GAS pathogenesis makes this surface structure a promising vaccine target. This article also reviews recent advancements in pilus-based vaccine strategies and discusses certain aspects that should be considered in vaccine development according to the newly defined properties of pili.

Different Group A Streptococcus pili lead to varying proinflammatory cytokine responses and virulence.

The human pathogen Streptococcus pyogenes, or Group A Streptococcus (GAS), is associated with a variety of diseases ranging from mild skin and soft tissue infections to invasive diseases and immune sequelae such as rheumatic heart disease. We have recently reported that one of the virulence factors of this pathogen, the pilus, has inflammatory properties and strongly stimulates the innate immune system. Here we used a range of nonpathogenic Lactococcus lactis gain-of-function mutants, each expressing one of the major pilus types of GAS, to compare the immune responses generated by various types of fully assembled pili. In vitro assays indicated variability in the inflammatory response induced by different pili, with the fibronectin-binding, collagen-binding, T antigen (FCT)-1-type pilus from GAS serotype M6/T6 inducing significantly stronger cytokine secretion than other pili. Furthermore, we established that the same trend of pili-mediated immune response could be modeled in Galleria mellonella larvae, which possess a similar innate immune system to vertebrates. Counterintuitively, across the panel of pili types examined in this study, we observed a negative correlation between the intensity of the immune response demonstrated in our experiments and the disease severity observed clinically in the GAS strains associated with each pilus type. This observation suggests that pili-mediated inflammation is more likely to promote bacterial clearance instead of causing disruptive damages that intensify pathogenesis. This also indicates that pili may not be the main contributor to the inflammatory symptoms seen in GAS diseases. Rather, the immune-potentiating properties of the pilus components could potentially be exploited as a vaccine adjuvant.

Mucosal vaccination: onward and upward.

INTRODUCTION: The unique mucosal immune system allows the generation of robust protective immune responses at the front line of pathogen encounters. The needle-free delivery route and cold chain-free logistic requirements also provide additional advantages in ease and economy. However, the development of mucosal vaccines faces several challenges, and only a handful of mucosal vaccines are currently licensed. These vaccines are all in the form of live attenuated or inactivated whole organisms, whereas no subunit-based mucosal vaccine is available. AREAS COVERED: The selection of antigen, delivery vehicle, route and adjuvants for mucosal vaccination are highly important. This is particularly crucial for subunit vaccines, as they often fail to elicit strong immune responses. Emerging research is providing new insights into the biological and immunological uniqueness of mucosal tissues. However, many aspects of the mucosal immunology still await to be investigated. EXPERT OPINION: This article provides an overview of the current understanding of mucosal vaccination and discusses the remaining knowledge gaps. We emphasize that because of the potential benefits mucosal vaccines can bring from the biomedical, social and economic standpoints, the unmet goal to achieve mucosal vaccine success is worth the effort.

Eluding the immune system's frontline defense: Secreted complement evasion factors of pathogenic Gram-positive cocci.

The human complement system is an important part of the innate immune response in the fight against invasive bacteria. Complement responses can be activated independently by the classical pathway, the lectin pathway, or the alternative pathway, each resulting in the formation of a C3 convertase that produces the anaphylatoxin C3a and the opsonin C3b by specifically cutting C3. Other important features of complement are the production of the chemotactic C5a peptide and the generation of the membrane attack complex to lyse intruding pathogens. Invasive pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus and several species of the genus Streptococcus have developed a variety of complement evasion strategies to resist complement activity thereby increasing their virulence and potential to cause disease. In this review, we focus on secreted complement evasion factors that assist the bacteria to avoid opsonization and terminal pathway lysis. We also briefly discuss the potential role of complement evasion factors for the development of vaccines and therapeutic interventions.

Naturally acquired functional antibody responses to group A Streptococcus differ between major strain types.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a leading human pathogen for which there is no licensed vaccine. Infections are most common in young children and the elderly suggesting immunity accumulates with exposure until immune senescence in older age. Though protection has been postulated to be strain type specific, based on the M-protein (emm-type), the antigenic basis of population-level immunity remains poorly understood. Naturally acquired GAS antibody responses were investigated using intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), which contains pooled immunoglobulins from thousands of healthy human donors, as a surrogate for population immunity. Functional opsonophagocytic killing assays were conducted with GAS strains (n = 6) representing the three major emm-pattern types (emm12, A-C pattern; emm53, D-pattern; and emm75, E-pattern). While IVIG induced opsonophagocytic killing of all GAS strains tested, specificity assays showed the profile of protective antibodies differed considerably between emm-types. Antibodies targeting the M-protein were a major component of the functional IVIG antibody response for emm12 and emm53 strains but not for emm75 strains. The striking differences in the contribution of M-protein specific antibodies to killing suggest naturally acquired immunity differs between strains from the major emm-patterns. This challenges the dogma that M-protein is the primary protective antigen across all GAS straintypes. IMPORTANCE Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a globally important pathogen. With the surge of invasive GAS infections that have occurred in multiple countries, contemporaneous with the relaxation of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, there is increased interest in the mechanisms underpinning GAS immunity. We utilized intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG), pooled immunoglobulins from thousands of healthy donors, as a surrogate for population-level immunity to GAS, and explored the contribution of strain-specific (M-type specific) antibodies to GAS immunity using functional killing assays. This revealed striking differences between major strain types as to the contribution of strain specific antibodies to killing. For GAS strains belonging to the E pattern group, M-type specific antibodies do not mediate killing and immunity, which contrasts with strains belonging to pattern A-C and D groups. This challenges the historical dogma, originally proposed by Rebecca Lancefield in the 1950-1960s, that the M-protein is the major protective antigen across all GAS strain types.

Methods to Analyze the Contribution of Complement Evasion Factor (CEF) to Streptococcus pyogenes Virulence.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS, Streptococcus pyogenes) is an exclusively human pathogen that causes a range of diseases, including pharyngitis, tonsillitis, impetigo, erysipelas, necrotizing fasciitis, and toxic shock syndrome. Post-streptococcal sequelae include acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease. The bacterium produces a large arsenal of virulence factors that contribute to host tissue adhesion/colonization, bacterial spread, and host immune evasion. Immune evasion factors include proteins that interfere with complement, a system of plasma proteins that are activated by pathogens resulting in a variety of reactions on the surface of the pathogen. This leads to the activation of active components with a variety of effector functions, such as cell lysis, opsonization, and chemotaxis of phagocytes to the site of infection. We have recently identified a novel "complement evasion factor" (CEF) in S. pyogenes. CEF directly interacts with complement proteins C1r, C1s, C3, and C5, interrupts all three complement pathways, and prevents opsonization of the bacterial surface with C3b. We here present methods used to analyze the complement interference of CEF.

Expanding strain coverage of a group A Streptococcus pilus-expressing Lactococcus lactis mucosal vaccine.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a human pathogenic bacterium that can trigger a wide range of diseases, including the autoimmune diseases acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease, causing major morbidity and mortality in many low- and middle-income countries. Primary intervention programs have had limited success thus far, and a licensed vaccine has yet to be developed. The pilus of GAS is known to be involved in host cell adhesion, biofilm formation and immune evasion. We have a mucosal vaccine in development that expresses the pilus of GAS on the surface of the nonpathogenic bacterium Lactococcus lactis. To expand strain coverage, we combined seven L. lactis constructs, each expressing a different GAS pilus variant, and investigated the systemic and mucosal immune responses following immunization. Mice immunized with this combination showed specific immunoglobin G and immunoglobin A responses to the GAS pilus proteins of vaccine strains, at levels comparable to mice immunized with a single construct. Cross-reactivity to pilus proteins of nonvaccine strains was also evident. Furthermore, protective efficacy against a homologous strain of GAS in a murine nasopharyngeal colonization model was observed. Overall, this study provides further evidence for using pilus-expressing lactic acid bacteria as a vaccine to prevent upper respiratory tract GAS infections.

The Cell Wall Deacetylases Spy1094 and Spy1370 Contribute to Streptococcus pyogenes Virulence.

Streptococcus pyogenes, or Group A Streptococcus (GAS), is a strictly human pathogen that causes a wide range of diseases, including skin and soft tissue infections, toxic shock syndrome and acute rheumatic fever. We have recently reported that Spy1094 and Spy1370 of S. pyogenes serotype M1 are N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) deacetylases. We have generated spy1094 and spy1370 gene deletion mutants in S. pyogenes and gain-of-function mutants in Lactococcus lactis. Similar to other cell wall deacetylases, our results show that Spy1094 and Spy1370 confer lysozyme-resistance. Furthermore, deletion of the genes decreased S. pyogenes virulence in a human whole blood killing assay and a Galleria mellonella (Greater wax moth) larvae infection model. Expression of the two genes in L. lactis resulted in increased lysozyme resistance and survival in whole human blood, and reduced survival of infected G. mellonella larvae. Deletion of the spy1370, but not the spy1094 gene, decreased resistance to the cationic antimicrobial peptide cecropin B, whereas both enzymes increased biofilm formation, probably resulting from the increase in positive charges due to deacetylation of the cell wall. In conclusion, Spy1094 and Spy1370 are important S. pyogenes virulence factors and might represent attractive targets for the development of antibacterial agents.

Design, optimization and evaluation of dexamethasone-loaded microneedles for inflammatory disorders.

Dexamethasone (Dex) is a popular and highly potent anti-inflammatory drug, frequently used to treat a wide range of inflammatory disorders. However, the existing oral and parenteral delivery modes have several limitations, including systemic adverse effects and reduced patient compliance. This study aimed to develop a biodegradable microneedle (MN)-based transdermal delivery system capable of sustained, safe and effective delivery of Dex. A Quality by Design (QbD) approach was applied to design the Dex-loaded MN arrays. The formulation variables were optimized using a central composite design (CCD) model, generated with the statistical software package Design- Expert®. The optimized MNs were sharp, with heights ranging between 800 and 900 µm, appropriate for transdermal delivery. The MN arrays did not exhibit any cytotoxic effects on the fibroblast and keratinocyte cells. Moreover, the ex vivo studies confirmed the enhanced efficacy of MN-mediated skin permeation of Dex compared to passive permeation of drug solution. Finally, the in vivo anti-inflammatory efficacy was investigated using the carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model. The efficacy of the MN arrays to inhibit paw edema formation was found to be comparable to that of intravenous Dex injection and significantly greater than topical solution. Cytokine analysis also revealed that application of MN arrays downregulated the expressions of pro-inflammatory cytokines and upregulated the expressions of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Overall, the findings suggest that MN array could be a safe, easy, effective and minimally invasive alternative to the existing means of Dex delivery and could potentially be used for the treatment of inflammatory disorders.

Identification of an immunodominant region on a group A Streptococcus T-antigen reveals temperature-dependent motion in pili.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) is a globally important pathogen causing a broad range of human diseases. GAS pili are elongated proteins with a backbone comprised repeating T-antigen subunits, which extend from the cell surface and have important roles in adhesion and establishing infection. No GAS vaccines are currently available, but T-antigen-based candidates are in pre-clinical development. This study investigated antibody-T-antigen interactions to gain molecular insight into functional antibody responses to GAS pili. Large, chimeric mouse/human Fab-phage libraries generated from mice vaccinated with the complete T18.1 pilus were screened against recombinant T18.1, a representative two-domain T-antigen. Of the two Fab identified for further characterization, one (designated E3) was cross-reactive and also recognized T3.2 and T13, while the other (H3) was type-specific reacting with only T18.1/T18.2 within a T-antigen panel representative of the major GAS T-types. The epitopes for the two Fab, determined by x-ray crystallography and peptide tiling, overlapped and mapped to the N-terminal region of the T18.1 N-domain. This region is predicted to be buried in the polymerized pilus by the C-domain of the next T-antigen subunit. However, flow cytometry and opsonophagocytic assays showed that these epitopes were accessible in the polymerized pilus at 37°C, though not at lower temperature. This suggests that there is motion within the pilus at physiological temperature, with structural analysis of a covalently linked T18.1 dimer indicating "knee-joint" like bending occurs between T-antigen subunits to expose this immunodominant region. This temperature dependent, mechanistic flexing provides new insight into how antibodies interact with T-antigens during infection.

The effects of sugar in drinking water on Streptococcus pyogenes colonisation in a murine nasopharyngeal infection model.

The number of sugar-sweetened beverages consumed per day has been associated with an increased risk of acute rheumatic fever, an autoimmune disease triggered by superficial Streptococcus pyogenes infection. To explore if there could be a biological basis for this association, we used a mouse model of S. pyogenes nasopharyngeal colonisation combined with a dietary intervention. We observed an increased bacterial load in the nasopharynx of mice receiving sucrose drinking water post-infection, suggesting that high sucrose intake promotes S. pyogenes growth and/or survival. This provides new insight into the potential biological basis behind the association seen in humans.

Exploring ex vivo peptideolysis of thymopentin and lipid-based nanocarriers towards oral formulations.

The oral delivery of medicines is the most popular route of administration for patients. However, thymopentin (TP5) is only available in the market in forms for parenteral administration. In large part, this is because of extensive peptidolytic degradation in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), which decreases the amount of TP5 available for absorption. This study aims to understand the extent of TP5 peptideolysis and determine effective inhibitors and suitable lipid-based nanocarriers to aid in the development of an effective oral delivery formulation. Enzymatic degradation kinetics of TP5 was investigated in the presence or absence of mucosal and luminal components extracted from various parts of the rat intestine, including the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and colon. Inhibition of TP5 enzymatic peptidolysis was screened in the presence or absence of EDTA, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors from soybean (SBTCI), and bestatin. TP5 with SBTCI was loaded into lipid-based nanocarriers, including microemulsions, niosomes and solid lipid nanoparticles. These TP5-loaded nanocarriers were investigated through characterization of morphology, particle size, zeta potential, entrapment efficacy (EE%), and ex vivo rat intestinal degradation studies to select a lead formulation for a future oral drug delivery study. The degradation kinetics of TP5 followed pseudo-first-order kinetics, and the biological metabolism of TP5 was displayed in the presence of luminal contents, indicating that TP5 is sensitive to luminal enzymes. Notably, a considerable decrease in TP5 peptidolysis was found in the presence of SBTCI, bestatin, and EDTA. TP5 and SBTCI were loaded into three lipid-based delivery systems, displaying superior protection under ex vivo intestinal luminal contents and mucosal homogenates for 6 h compared with the pure drug solution. These findings suggest that using select inhibitors and lipid-based nanocarriers can decrease peptide degradation and may improve oral bioavailability of TP5 following oral administration.

Complement evasion factor (CEF), a novel immune evasion factor of Streptococcus pyogenes.

Streptococcus pyogenes, a leading human pathogen, is responsible for a wide range of diseases, including skin and soft tissue infections and severe invasive diseases. S. pyogenes produces a large arsenal of virulence factors, including several immune evasion factors. We have identified an open reading frame (spy0136) in the S. pyogenes SF370 genome encoding a protein of unknown function. Using recombinant Spy0136 in a pull-down assay with human plasma and ELISA, we have identified four complement proteins (C1r, C1s, C3, and C5) as binding partners. Treatment of the complement proteins with PNGase F abrogated binding to C1s, C3, and C5, indicating glycan-dependent interactions. rSpy0136 inhibited complement-mediated hemolysis and interfered with all three complement pathways in a Wieslab complement assay. Furthermore, rSpy0136 inhibited deposition of the C3b opsonin and the membrane attack complex (MAC) on the surface of S. pyogenes. We therefore named the previously unknown protein 'complement evasion factor' (CEF).An S. pyogenes Δspy0136/cef deletion mutant showed decreased virulence in an in-vitro whole blood killing assay and a Galleria mellonella (wax moth) infection model. Furthermore, an L. lactis spy0136/cef gain-of-function mutant showed increased survival during growth in whole human blood. Analysis of serum samples from patients with invasive S. pyogenes revealed Spy0136/CEF sero-conversion indicating expression during disease. In summary, we have identified a novel S. pyogenes immune evasion factor that binds to several complement proteins to interfere with complement function. This is the first example of a S. pyogenes virulence factor binding to several different target proteins via glycan-dependent interactions.

PilVax: A Novel Platform for the Development of Mucosal Vaccines.

Peptide vaccines offer an attractive strategy to induce highly specific immune responses while reducing potential side effects. However, peptides are often poorly immunogenic and unstable on their own, requiring the need for potentially toxic adjuvants or expensive chemical coupling. The novel peptide delivery platform PilVax utilizes the rigid pilus structure from Group A Streptococcus (GAS) to stabilize and amplify the peptide, and present it on the surface of the non-pathogenic food-grade bacterium Lactococcus lactis. Upon intranasal immunization, PilVax vaccines have proven to induce peptide-specific systemic and mucosal responses. PilVax provides an alternative method to develop mucosal vaccines that are inexpensive to produce and easy to administer.

Intranasal immunization with Ag85B peptide 25 displayed on Lactococcus lactis using the PilVax platform induces antigen-specific B- and T-cell responses.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) remains a global epidemic despite the widespread use of Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG). Consequently, novel vaccines are required to facilitate a reduction in Mtb morbidity and mortality. PilVax is a peptide delivery strategy for the generation of highly specific mucosal immune responses and is based on the food-grade bacterium Lactococcus lactis that is used to express selected peptides engineered within the Streptococcus pyogenes M1T1 pilus, allowing for peptide amplification, stabilization and enhanced immunogenicity. In the present study, the dominant T-cell epitope from the Mtb protein Ag85B was genetically engineered into the pilus backbone subunit and expressed on the surface of L. lactis. Western blot and flow cytometry confirmed formation of pilus containing the peptide DNA sequence. B-cell responses in intranasally vaccinated mice were analyzed by ELISA while T-cell responses were analyzed by flow cytometry. Serum titers of peptide-specific immunoglobulin (Ig) G and IgA were detected, confirming that vaccination produced antibodies against the cognate peptide. Peptide-specific IgA was also detected across several mucosal sites sampled. Peptide-specific CD4+ T cells were detected at levels similar to those of mice immunized with BCG. PilVax immunization resulted in an unexpected increase in the numbers of CD3+ CD4- CD8- [double negative (DN)] T cells in the lungs of vaccinated mice. Analysis of cytokine production following stimulation with the cognate peptide showed the major cytokine producing cells to be CD4+ T cells and DN T cells. This study provides insight into the antibody and peptide-specific cellular immune responses generated by PilVax vaccination and demonstrates the suitability of this vaccine for conducting a protection study.

A multivalent T-antigen-based vaccine for Group A Streptococcus.

Pili of Group A Streptococcus (GAS) are surface-exposed structures involved in adhesion and colonisation of the host during infection. The major protein component of the GAS pilus is the T-antigen, which multimerises to form the pilus shaft. There are currently no licenced vaccines against GAS infections and the T-antigen represents an attractive target for vaccination. We have generated a multivalent vaccine called TeeVax1, a recombinant protein that consists of a fusion of six T-antigen domains. Vaccination with TeeVax1 produces opsonophagocytic antibodies in rabbits and confers protective efficacy in mice against invasive disease. Two further recombinant proteins, TeeVax2 and TeeVax3 were constructed to cover 12 additional T-antigens. Combining TeeVax1-3 produced a robust antibody response in rabbits that was cross-reactive to a full panel of 21 T-antigens, expected to provide over 95% vaccine coverage. These results demonstrate the potential for a T-antigen-based vaccine to prevent GAS infections.

Preformulation studies of thymopentin: analytical method development, physicochemical properties, kinetic degradation investigations and formulation perspective.

Thymopentin (TP5) is a synthetic pentapeptide with immunomodulatory properties. Given the previously described poor absorption of TP5, preformulation data is required to support effective formulation development. In this manuscript, an analytical method of TP5 was developed and validated to determine the aqueous solubility, stability, and Log P of TP5. Thermal properties were investigated, and chemical, physical and enzymatic degradation were evaluated. TP5 was informed to load in a microemulsion (ME) system according to the preformulation parameters and characterized for rheological behavior, droplet size, morphology and in vitro drug release. TP5 displayed high aqueous solubility (294.3 mg/mL), low Log P (-4.2) and 2% water content with a melting temperature of 193 °C. TP5 degraded rapidly in alkaline conditions, at elevated temperature, in oxidizing agents, and with UV exposure, however TP5 had a longer half-life in acidic conditions. The fastest enzymatic degradation was with Trypsin (half-life 6.3 h) compared with other digestive enzymes. The different degradation pathways followed first-order kinetics, and half-lives were obtained from the kinetic studies. The TP5 loaded ME exhibited a droplet size of 143 ± 35 nm with a Higuchi-model fitted sustained release profile for 24 h. These data justify and support the design of formulations to stabilize and enhance the absorption of TP5, with a ME formulation demonstrated.

Functional Analysis of Two Novel Streptococcus iniae Virulence Factors Using a Zebrafish Infection Model.

Streptococcus iniae is a major fish pathogen that contributes to large annual losses in the aquaculture industry, exceeding US$100 million. It is also reported to cause opportunistic infections in humans. We have recently identified two novel S. iniae virulence factors, an extracellular nuclease (SpnAi) and a secreted nucleotidase (S5nAi), and verified their predicted enzymatic activities using recombinant proteins. Here, we report the generation of green fluorescent S. iniae spnAi and s5nAi deletion mutants and their evaluation in a transgenic zebrafish infection model. Our results show nuclease and nucleotidase activities in S. iniae could be attributed to SpnAi and S5nAi, respectively. Consistent with this, larvae infected with the deletion mutants demonstrated enhanced survival and bacterial clearance, compared to those infected with wild-type (WT) S. iniae. Deletion of spnAi and s5nAi resulted in sustained recruitment of neutrophils and macrophages, respectively, to the site of infection. We also show that recombinant SpnAi is able to degrade neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) isolated from zebrafish kidney tissue. Our results suggest that both enzymes play an important role in S. iniae immune evasion and might present potential targets for the development of therapeutic agents or vaccines.

Generation of Bioluminescent Group A Streptococcus for Biophotonic Imaging.

Bioluminescence is a rapid and cost-saving technology that enables monitoring of bacteria in real time in animal infection models. Here, we report a method for labeling GAS with a set of plasmids we have developed and deposited with Addgene. These plasmids can be used to either integrate firefly luciferase (Ffluc) or red-shifted firefly luciferase (FflucRT) into the GAS genome or to introduce the reporters on plasmids which have been stabilized with a toxin-antitoxin system to prevent loss of plasmid in the absence of antibiotic selection.