Effects of alcohol mixed with energy drink and alcohol alone on subjective intoxication.

Recent studies suggest that the combination of caffeine-containing drinks together with alcohol might reduce the subjective feelings of alcohol intoxication-the so-called "masking effect". In this study, we aimed to review the effects of alcohol in combination with caffeine or energy drink with special focus on the "masking effect". Fifty-two healthy male volunteers were analysed concerning breath alcohol concentration and subjective sensations of intoxication using a 18 item Visual Analogue Scale in a randomised, double-blinded, controlled, four treatments cross-over trial after consumption of (A) placebo, (B) alcohol (vodka 37.5% at a dose of 46.5 g ethanol), (C) alcohol in combination with caffeine at a dose of 80 mg (equivalent to one 250 ml can of energy drink) and (D) alcohol in combination with energy drink at a dose of 250 ml (one can). Primary variables were headache, weakness, salivation and motor coordination. Out of four primary variables, weakness and motor coordination showed a statistically significant difference between alcohol and non-alcohol group, out of 14 secondary variables, five more variables (dizziness, alterations in sight, alterations in walking, agitation and alterations in speech) also showed significant differences due mainly to contrasts with the non-alcohol group. In none of these end points, could a statistically significant effect be found for the additional ingestion of energy drink or caffeine on the subjective feelings of alcohol intoxication. This within-subjects study does not confirm the presence of a "masking effect" when combining caffeine or energy drink with alcohol.

Oxidized phospholipids: from molecular properties to disease.

Oxidized lipids are generated from (poly)unsaturated diacyl- and alk(en)ylacyl glycerophospholipids under conditions of oxidative stress. The great variety of reaction products is defined by the degree of modification, hydrophobicity, chemical reactivity, physical properties and biological activity. The biological activities of these compounds may depend on both, the recognition of the particular molecular structures by specific receptors and on the unspecific physical and chemical effects on their target systems (membranes, proteins). In this review, we aim at highlighting the molecular features that are essential for the understanding of the biological actions of pure oxidized phospholipids. Firstly, their chemical structures are described as a basis for an understanding of their physical and (bio)chemical properties in membrane- and protein-bound form. Secondly, the biological activities of oxidized phospholipids are discussed in terms of their unspecific effects on the membrane level as well as their potential interactions with specific targets (receptors) affecting a large set of (signaling) molecules. Finally, the role of oxidized phospholipids as important mediators in pathophysiology is discussed with emphasis on atherosclerosis.

The oxidized phospholipids POVPC and PGPC inhibit growth and induce apoptosis in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Oxidized phospholipids, including 1-palmitoyl-2-(5-oxovaleroyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POVPC) and 1-palmitoyl-2-glutaroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PGPC) are typically present in oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and have been found in atherosclerotic lesions. These compounds are gaining increasing importance as inducers of different cellular responses like inflammation, proliferation, or cell death. The aim of this study was to elicit the type and outcome of the cellular response of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) upon treatment with POVPC and PGPC. Both oxidized phospholipids led to inhibition of cell proliferation and showed cytotoxic effects in VSMC. Several morphological criteria, the presence of typical DNA fragments, and a phosphatidylserine shift towards the outer leaflet of the cell membrane revealed that apoptosis was the predominant mode of cell death. In all experiments, POVPC was found to be a more potent inducer of apoptosis than PGPC. Interestingly, in the presence of high levels of serum in the growth media the proapoptotic but not the antiproliferative effects of both oxidized phospholipids were abolished. Thus, we conclude that under low serum conditions both intact POVPC and PGPC are proapoptotic mediators. Under high serum conditions, these lipids are hydrolyzed and the resultant lipid mixture containing the degradation products is no longer apoptotic but antiproliferative. Thus, the direct and indirect effects of POVPC and PGPC on cell viability may account for the detrimental actions of oxLDL on VSMC.

Role of ceramide in activation of stress-associated MAP kinases by minimally modified LDL in vascular smooth muscle cells.

Interaction of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (LDL) with arterial smooth muscle cells (SMC) is believed to play a key role in the development of atherosclerosis. Depending on the extent of oxidation, apolipoproteins and/or lipids in the particle may be modified and thus lead to different cellular responses (e.g. proliferation or cell death). Here we report on the signaling effects of LDL, in which only the lipids were oxidized. This so-called minimally modified LDL (mmLDL) mainly activated components involved in stress response and apoptotic cell death including p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK) as well as neutral and acid sphingomyelinase. In contrast, proliferative signaling elements such as extracellular regulated kinase, AKT-kinase and phospho-BAD seem to play a minor role as they were only slightly stimulated by mmLDL. Ceramide, the hydrolysis product of sphingomyelin, seems to be a key mediator as it mimics mmLDL by inducing activation of the same signaling components. Moreover, mmLDL- and ceramide-associated effects on apoptotic protein kinases were abolished by NB6, a specific inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase. Thus, acid sphingomyelinase is very likely to be primarily responsible for triggering intracellular signal transduction in SMC after exposure to mmLDL via formation of ceramide by an autocatalytic mechanism.

Oxidized phospholipids in minimally modified low density lipoprotein induce apoptotic signaling via activation of acid sphingomyelinase in arterial smooth muscle cells.

Oxidized phospholipids, including 1-palmitoyl-2-glutaroyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PGPC) and 1-palmitoyl-2-(5-oxovaleroyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POVPC), typically present in minimally modified low density lipoprotein, have been found in atherosclerotic lesions. These compounds are gaining increasing importance as inducers of different cellular responses (inflammation, proliferation, or cell death). It was the aim of this study to understand their impact on intracellular signal transduction pathways that are responsible for these biological effects. We found that in arterial smooth muscle cells, PGPC and POVPC activated sphingomyelinases, in particular the acid isoform, which is known to participate in the very early phase of apoptotic stress responses. In addition, mitogen-activated protein kinases, which are involved in induction of stress response and apoptosis were phosphorylated (activated). Finally, activation of caspase 3 was observed, showing that stimulation of smooth muscle cells with POVPC and PGPC is associated with apoptosis. Stimulation of all these enzymes by the oxidized phospholipids almost perfectly matched their activation by minimally modified LDL. Consequently, these phospholipids seem to be responsible for the effect of this particle on cell signaling. Survival and proliferation pathways including NF-kappa B or AKT kinase were not induced by POVPC and PGPC. Experiments with a specific inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase named NB6 showed that this enzyme plays a central role in mediating the apoptotic effects of the oxidized lipids. Thus, we conclude that modified phospholipids induce signaling cascades via activation of acid sphingomyelinase finally leading to apoptosis of smooth muscle cells, which is a detrimental process in the development of atherosclerosis.