A novel system of electrodes transparent to ultrasound for simultaneous detection of myoelectric activity and B-mode ultrasound images of skeletal muscles.

Application of two-dimensional surface electrode arrays can provide a means of mapping motor unit action potentials on the skin surface above a muscle. The resulting muscle tissue displacement can be quantified, in a single plane, using ultrasound (US) imaging. Currently, however, it is not possible to simultaneously map spatio-temporal propagation of activation and resulting tissue strain. In this paper, we developed and tested a material that will enable concurrent measurement of two-dimensional surface electromyograms (EMGs) with US images. Specific protocols were designed to test the compatibility of this new electrode material, both with EMG recording and with US analysis. Key results indicate that, for this new electrode material, 1) the electrode-skin impedance is similar to that of arrays of electrodes reported in literature; 2) the reflection of US at the electrode-skin interface is negligible; 3) the likelihood of observing missing contacts, short-circuits, and artifacts in EMGs is not affected by the US probe; 4) movement of tissues sampled by US can be tracked accurately. We, therefore, conclude this approach will facilitate multimodal imaging of muscle to provide new spatio-temporal information regarding electromechanical function of muscle. This is relevant to basic physiology-biomechanics of active and passive force transmission through and between muscles, of motor unit spatio-temporal activity patterns, of their variation with architecture and task-related function, and of their adaptation with aging, training-exercise-disuse, neurological disease, and injury.

Human balancing of an inverted pendulum: is sway size controlled by ankle impedance?

Using the ankle musculature, subjects balanced a large inverted pendulum. The equilibrium of the pendulum is unstable and quasi-regular sway was observed like that in quiet standing. Two main questions were addressed. Can subjects systematically change sway size in response to instruction and availability of visual feedback? If so, do subjects decrease sway size by increasing ankle impedance or by some alternative mechanism? The position of the pendulum, the torque generated at each ankle and the soleus and tibialis anterior EMG were recorded. Results showed that subjects could significantly reduce the mean sway size of the pendulum by giving full attention to that goal. With visual feedback sway size could be minimised significantly more than without visual feedback. In changing sway size, the frequency of the sways was not changed. Results also revealed that ankle impedance and muscle co-contraction were not significantly changed when the sway size was decreased. As the ankle impedance and sway frequency do not change when the sway size is decreased, this implies no change in ankle stiffness or viscosity. Increasing ankle impedance, stiffness or viscosity are not the only methods by which sway size could be reduced. A reduction in torque noise or torque inaccuracy via a predictive process which provides active damping could reduce sway size without changing ankle impedance and is plausible given the data. Such a strategy involving motion recognition and generation of an accurate motor response may require higher levels of control than changing ankle impedance by altering reflex or feedforward gain.