Evaluation of B7-1 (CD80) and B7-2 (CD86) costimulatory molecules and dendritic cells on the immune response in leprosy.

The cell activation depends on T cell antigen receptor binding to antigen plus MHC and costimulation. The binding of CD28, expressed on the T cell surface to B7 (B7-1 or CD80/B7-2 or CD86) present on the antigen--presenting cells (APCs), determines, in several T cell function models, if activation or anergy follows antigenic stimulation. In leprosy, the role of CD80 and CD86 as costimulatory signal in M. leprae-specific cellular immunity has not yet been defined. We investigated the role of B7-CD28 pathway of T cell activation in the in vitro response to M. leprae, following stimulation in the presence of monocytes or dendritic cells (DCs) as APCs. Monocytes were purified, by cold aggregation, from peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes (PBMC), isolated from leprosy patients. In order to obtain DCs, the monocytes were cultured in the presence of IL-4 and GM-CSF. T cells were purified from PBMC by negative selection with mABs and C'. The phenotype of the cell populations was monitored by FACS. Lymphoproliferative assays were performed with T cells, in the presence of monocytes or DCs. The cells were stimulated by M. leprae in the presence of anti-CD80 antibody (Ab) and/or anti-CD86 antibody (Ab) (Innogenetics). In some experiments Il-10, Il-12 and anti-Il-12 Ab were also added to the culture. We observed a significantly more efficient APC function for DCs when compared to monocytes in T cell in vitro responses to M. leprae. Regardless of the clinical form of Leprosy, the M. leprae-specific immune response was markedly reduced in the presence of anti-CD86 Ab. Il-12 increase the immune response to M. leprae while IL-10 or anti-IL-12 Ab reduce this response when monocytes or DCs were used as APCs.

Regulation of the IL-10 production by human T cells.

Interleukin (IL)-10, an immunomodulatory cytokine predominantly produced by monocytes/macrophages and T cells, inhibits several functions of dendritic cells (DC), monocytes and T cells including their cytokine production, but it stimulates B cell immunoglobulin (Ig) production and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) generation. A precise knowledge of the mechanisms that control the IL-10 production is therefore highly important for understanding the immunoregulation. The IL-10 production was studied in cultures of freshly isolated human T cells. A rise in intracellular calcium as well as the common gamma-chain containing cytokine receptor triggering or CD28 triggering were found to be important signals for IL-10 induction. CD80, CD58, rIL-12 and rIFN-alpha all had efficacious and independent costimulatory activities on the IL-10 production, while PGE2 was inhibitory. Dependence on autocrine IL-2 signalling was shown by the effects of anti-IL-2 and anti-IL-2R monoclonal antibodies (MoAb), but the IL-10 production proceeded partly IL-2-independent when CD80 provided costimulation. Sensitivity to inhibition by CsA was not removed by CD80 or CD58 costimulation and/or by addition of rIL-12 or rIFN-alpha, pointing to the absolute requirement for calcineurin activity. These data reveal important differences in the regulatory pathways between IL-10 (a cytokine-inhibitory interleukin) and IL-2 (a cytokine-inducing interleukin), which can potentially be exploited therapeutically. The fact that CsA blocks the production of IL-10, which itself has important immunosuppressive properties, should be taken into account in defining immunosuppressive treatment schedules which include the use of CsA.

Differences in regulatory pathways identify subgroups of T cell-derived Th2 cytokines.

We analysed regulatory mechanisms involved in the production of Th2 cytokines by freshly isolated human T cells. We used an in vitro culture system in which the primary signal was provided by a cross-linking anti-CD3 MoAb presented on the Fc receptors of P815 cells. Both CD80 and CD86, expressed on transfected P815 cells, were able to provide efficient costimulation for the production of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-13. IL-2 was also highly important for induction of all three Th2 cytokines. However, differences between IL-4 on the one hand and IL-5 and IL-13 on the other hand were observed when sensitivity to cyclosporin A (CsA) was studied. CsA (an inhibitor of calcineurin phosphatase activity) strongly inhibited IL-4 production, but it did either not affect or even increased IL-5 and IL-13 production. In accordance with this, CD80 and phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) (without anti-CD3 or calcium ionophore) were sufficient to induce production of IL-5 and IL-13, but not of IL-4. The subgrouping of Th2 cytokines was further confirmed at another level on the basis of differences in cell sources: IL-4 was predominantly produced by CD4+ T cells, while IL-5 and IL-13 were produced by both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Thus, differences in cell sources and in the requirement of the calcium/calcineurin-signalling pathway allowed us to identify two subgroups (IL-4 and IL-5/IL-13) among human Th2-type T cell cytokines.

Prolonged skin graft survival by administration of anti-CD80 monoclonal antibody with cyclosporin A.

Costimulation via the B7/CD28 pathway is an important signal for the activation of T cells. Maximal inhibition of T-cell activation and the induction of alloantigen-specific nonresponsiveness in vitro was achieved using anti-CD80 monoclonal antibody (mAb) in combination with cyclosporin A (CsA). Based on this knowledge, the efficacy of the prophylactic treatment of anti-CD80 mAb and CsA on allogeneic skin graft survival was tested in a preclinical rhesus monkey model. No side effects have been observed. Administration of anti-CD80 mAb resulted in high mAb serum levels that decreased to undetectable values around day 7. At the same time, the anti-mouse antibody response started to develop. The anti-CD80 mAb bound to peripheral blood mononuclear cells and was detectable in lymph node and grafted skin during the treatment period. The skin graft survival time of untreated or suboptimally CsA-treated rhesus monkeys was 10 days. Treatment with CsA (blood levels of 100-160 ng/ml) in combination with anti-CD80 mAb (0.5 mg/kg) resulted in a significantly increased skin graft survival time to 14 days. Eventually, skin grafts in all rhesus monkeys were rejected, which coincided with an increase in helper and cytotoxic T-cell frequency and induction of an antibody response directed against the donor antigens. Therefore, treatment of anti-CD80 mAb in combination with CsA has significant immunosuppressive potency, but was unable to induce donor-specific nonresponsiveness in skin graft recipients.

Prevention of renal allograft rejection in primates by blocking the B7/CD28 pathway.

BACKGROUND: There is accumulating evidence that blockade of the costimulatory pathways offers a valid approach for immune suppression after solid organ transplantation. In this study, the efficacy of anti-CD80 and anti-CD86 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in combination with cyclosporine (CsA) to prevent renal allograft rejection was tested in non-human primates. METHODS: Rhesus monkeys were transplanted with a partly major histocompatibility complex-matched kidney on day 0. Anti-CD80 and anti-CD86 mAbs were administered intravenously daily for 14 days starting at day - 1. CsA was given intramuscularly for 35 days starting just after transplantation. The kidney function was monitored by determining serum creatinine levels. RESULTS: The combination of anti-CD80 and anti-CD86 mAbs completely abrogated the mixed lymphocyte reaction. Untreated rhesus monkeys rejected the kidney allograft in 5-7 days. Treatment with anti-CD80 plus anti-CD86 mAbs resulted in a significantly prolonged graft survival of 28+ 7 days (P=0.025). There were no clinical signs of side effects or rejection during treatment. Kidney graft rejection started after the antibody therapy was stopped. The anti-mouse antibody response was delayed from day 10 to 30 after the first injection. No difference in graft survival was observed between animals treated with CsA alone or in combination with anti-CD80 and anti-CD86 mAbs. However, treatment with anti-CD80 and anti-CD86 mAbs reduced development of vascular rejection. CONCLUSIONS: In combination, anti-CD80 and antiCD86 mAbs abrogate T-cell proliferation in vitro, delay the anti-mouse antibody response in vivo, and prevent graft rejection and development of graft vascular disease in a preclinical vascularized transplant model in non-human primates.

Shedding of soluble receptor for tumor necrosis factor alpha induced by M. leprae or LPS from human mononuclear cells.

Cell surface expression and release of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR type I) was analyzed after stimulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) with Mycobacterium leprae (M. leprae) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS). A transient spontaneous expression of TNFR type I on the surface of PBMC was observed. Two hr after activation with LPS, a significant reduction of TNFR type I expression was detected: Release of TNFR type I by M. leprae or LPS-stimulated PBMC was evaluated with an enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay. This release occurred relatively later (20 to 40 hr) than the secretion of TNF alpha which reached high levels between 8 to 20 hr after activation. Thalidomide, a potent drug for the treatment of erythema nodosum leprosum episodes by inhibiting TNF alpha production, had no influence on the TNFR type I expression. Similar results were obtained with pentoxifylline. It is concluded that the release of TNFR type I by M. leprae or LPS-stimulated PBMC may counteract the pro-inflammatory activities of TNF alpha, by reducing the systemic toxicity of this cytokine in leprosy.

Effects of anti-IL-4 receptor monoclonal antibody on in vitro T cell cytokine levels: IL-4 production by T cells from non-atopic donors.

IL-4 is a pleiotropic cytokine which is involved in the development of atopic diseases. Only limited data exist on IL-4 production in humans, and the relative contribution to atopy of either unbalanced IL-4 production, or increased IL-4-responsiveness of target cells, is still unknown. The use of a MoAb to the IL-4 receptor alpha-chain (IL-4Ralpha) enabled us to demonstrate that IL-4 production in vitro is usually underestimated, due to in vitro consumption, even in cultures of purified T cells. When IL-4 consumption was blocked, it became evident that CD80 and CD86 both provide effective costimulatory signals for high IL-4 production. Moreover, we found that even stimulation with a soluble antigen (tetanus toxoid) induces IL-4 production by T cells from healthy non-atopic donors. Both sets of data imply that IL-4 is not required for IL-4 production by memory and/or effector T cells. Our data further show that endogenous IL-4 activity modulates IL-10 and interferon-gamma production by T cells in opposite directions. The use of this receptor-blocking antibody will thus be helpful for in vitro studies on IL-4 regulation. Consumption of IL-4 by different cell types during in vitro cultures might have interfered with previous attempts to quantify IL-4 production by human T cells.

Human CTLA-4 is expressed in situ on T lymphocytes in germinal centers, in cutaneous graft-versus-host disease, and in Hodgkin's disease.

Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen-4 (CTLA-4, CD152) is a molecule expressed on in vitro activated T cells. CTLA-4 shares important sequence homology with CD28 and binds to the same ligands, CD80 (B7-1) and CD86 (B7-2). CTLA-4 probably functions as a negative regulator of T lymphocyte activation in the mouse, although this remains to be proven for human T lymphocytes. We have developed new monoclonal antibodies against human CTLA-4 and have investigated the in situ expression of CTLA-4 in a wide variety of normal and pathological human tissues expressing CD80 and CD86. As revealed in this study, CTLA-4 is expressed on thymocytes in thymic medulla, on a subset of CD4+ T lymphocytes in germinal centers of follicular hyperplasia, on T cells, mainly CD8+, infiltrating skin affected by graft-versus-host disease, and on T cells, mainly CD4+, infiltrating Hodgkin's disease lesions. In immunoelectron microscopy, CTLA-4 was found on the plasma membrane as well as in the hyaloplasm and cytoplasmic vesicles, in agreement with its pattern of expression on in vitro activated T cells. Interestingly, no or at most scarce expression of CTLA-4 was found in granulomatous lymph nodes, T-cell-mediated inflammatory diseases, or non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, regardless of their expression of CD80 or CD86. Thus, expression of CTLA-4 appears to be induced in selective pathological conditions in vivo. The pathways leading to selective induction of CTLA-4 and its role in the pathophysiology of these conditions need to be further investigated.

B7-blocking agents, alone or in combination with cyclosporin A, induce antigen-specific anergy of human memory T cells.

T cell anergy refers to a functional state in which the cells are alive but unable to produce IL-2 after appropriate triggering. Lack of CD28 costimulation through CD80 and CD86 molecules on APC might play a causative role in anergy induction, as previously shown with T cell clones. We now developed a model of anergy induction in cultures of freshly isolated memory T cells. Addition of either CTLA-4Ig or blocking anti-CD80 and anti-CD86 mAbs, in combination with cyclosporin A, to cultures of PBMC with soluble Ag consistently resulted in Ag-specific unresponsiveness, as evidenced upon antigenic rechallenge. In most experiments, the presence of cyclosporin A was not required, and blocking the B7-CD28 interaction during antigenic stimulation was sufficient to induce unresponsiveness. Unresponsiveness was apparent at the level of T cell proliferation as well as at the level of IL-2 and IFN-gamma production, and T cell responses to unrelated Ags were intact. Induction of unresponsiveness correlated with lack of T cell proliferation in the induction culture and could largely be prevented by supplementing the induction cultures with rIL-2, indicating that lack of IL-2 was responsible for this altered functional state. Unresponsive T cells did not suppress the proliferation of autologous T cells in response to original or third-party Ags. On the other hand, culture with IL-2 and Ag could reverse established T cell unresponsiveness, pointing to anergy rather than deletion as the underlying mechanism. Anergy induction in freshly isolated memory T cells opens perspectives for treatment of autoimmune and allergic diseases.

Interleukin-1 and B7/CD28 interaction regulate interleukin-6 production by human T cells.

Production of interleukin-6 (IL-6) by the Th2 subset of murine T cells supposedly contributes to regulation of humoral immunity. Little information exists on IL-6 production by human T cells. We examined the requirements for IL-6 production by purified human blood T cells, completely depleted of IL-6-producing monocyte-accessory cells. Immobilized anti-CD3 mAb alone (coated on the culture wells) was unable to induce IL-6 production, although it could induce production of IL-2 and TNF-alpha. Addition of rIL-1 beta as an accessory signal to anti-CD3-stimulated human T cells induced IL-6 mRNA expression and protein secretion, while IL-2, IL-4, GM-CSF, IFN-gamma, or TNF-alpha did not have any effect. In the presence of IL-1 beta, both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were able to produce IL-6. We also demonstrated that phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) or triggering of the CD28 molecule is an effective helper signal for IL-6 production by anti-CD3-stimulated T cells. Efficient CD28 ligation was done either by anti-CD28 mAb or by binding to its natural ligand B7/BB1, presented on the 3T6 mouse fibroblast cell line coexpressing transfected human Fc gamma RII (CD32) (to immobilize anti-CD3) and B7/BB1. Finally, we found that combinations of IL-1 beta with anti-CD28 mAb or PMA with anti-CD28 mAb were highly synergistic helper signals for IL-6 production. We conclude that IL-6 production by T cells is not induced by T cell receptor triggering alone, but different intracellular signaling pathways activated by IL-1 beta, CD28 ligation, or PMA efficiently coinduce IL-6 production.

CD45RO+ memory T cells but not CD45RA+ naive T cells can be efficiently activated by remote co-stimulation with B7.

Co-stimulatory signals are absolutely required for T cell activation after TCR-MHC-peptide interaction. The most important co-stimulatory signal known so far is mediated by the interaction of CD28 on T cells with B7 on APC. Here we demonstrate that the co-stimulatory signal from the B7 molecule does not necessarily have to come from the same cell which presents antigen. Titration curves obtained by limiting the amount of anti-CD3 mAb suggests that the same amount of TCR-CD3 cross-linking is required for full T cell activation whether B7 is present on the same or on another cell, but that the kinetics of T cell activation is slower when B7 is present on a separate cell from the primary signal. Finally and most importantly we also show that CD45RO+ memory T cells, but not CD45RA+ naive T cells, can be efficiently activated when B7 is expressed on bystander cells. These findings imply that co-stimulatory activation requirements of B7 are more stringent for naive than for memory T cells, which could be an important mechanism involved in the maintenance of self-tolerance.

Interleukin-2 induces tumor necrosis factor-alpha production by activated human T cells via a cyclosporin-sensitive pathway.

We examined requirements for TNF-alpha production by purified human blood T cells, completely depleted of monocyte-accessory cells, under different conditions of stimulation. Activation of T cells with immobilized anti-CD3 induced the appearance of mRNA for TNF-alpha and of functionally active TNF-alpha in the culture supernatant. Anti-CD3-induced TNF-alpha production could be inhibited by blocking the IL-2R with a combination of anti-Tac and Mik beta 1 (mAbs against the p55 and p75 chain of the IL-2R respectively) thus indicating an essential role of IL-2 in TNF-alpha induction. When purified T cells were activated with a combination of two anti-CD2 mAbs (9-1 and 9.6), additional signals (rIL-2 or rIL-1 beta or anti-CD28) were required for TNF-alpha mRNA production and protein secretion. rIL-1 beta supported anti-CD2-induced TNF-alpha production indirectly through an IL-2-dependent pathway. These same helper signals also enhanced TNF-alpha production by anti-CD3-stimulated T cells. IL-4, IL-6, GM-CSF and IFN-gamma had no effect on TNF-alpha production by T cells activated via either pathway. Addition of rIL-1 beta alone, rIL-2 alone or endotoxins to resting human T cells did not induce detectable amounts of TNF-alpha. Both helper/inducer CD4(+) and suppressor/cytotoxic CD8(+) subsets of T cells were shown to produce TNF-alpha upon stimulation. We conclude that CD3 or CD2 triggering are not sufficient for TNF-alpha production by T cells, but that the latter is dependent (apparently at the transcriptional level) on the interaction of IL-2 with its functionally active cell surface receptors. We could further demonstrate that TNF-alpha production was completely blocked by cyclosporin A. The inhibitory effect of this agent on TNF-alpha production was also observed in the presence of rIL-2, thus excluding an indirect effect through inhibition of IL-2 production.

A bidirectional regulatory network involving IL 2 and IL 4 in the alternative CD2 pathway of T cell activation.

In this study we examined the effect of interleukin 4 (IL 4) on T cell activation and proliferation via the alternative CD2 pathway. To this end highly purified human resting T cells were cultured with a stimulating pair of anti-CD2 monoclonal antibodies in the absence of accessory signals from monocytes. Addition of either recombinant (r)IL 2 or rIL 4 resulted in proliferation of the anti-CD2-stimulated T cells. The growth-promoting effect of rIL 4 on preactivated. T cells was shown to be partly a direct effect. rIL 4 also induced IL 2 production and, as a consequence, the effect of rIL 4 on T cell growth was enhanced by endogenously produced IL 2. Moreover, rIL 4 acted in synergy with exogenously added rIL 2 in promoting growth of anti-CD2-stimulated T cells. The synergistic effect of IL 2 and IL 4 could be explained by IL 2-induced up-regulation of IL 4 responsiveness. In contrast, preincubation with rIL 4 did not enhance IL 2 responsiveness and rIL 2 but not rIL 4 up-regulated IL 2R expression on anti-CD2-stimulated T cells. Finally we could demonstrate that monocyte-produced cytokines (IL 1 and IL 6) enhance the proliferative response to rIL 4 of anti-CD2-stimulated T cells. It can be concluded that IL 4 can act as a paracrine growth factor for T cells activated in the alternative CD2 pathway, and that it acts synergistically with IL 2, IL 1 and IL 6. Moreover, IL 4 is a helper signal for IL 2 production. Thus, IL 2 and IL 4 are involved in a bidirectional regulatory network, with IL 4 as an inducer of IL 2 production, and IL 2 as an enhancer of IL 4 responsiveness.

IL-6 is an accessory signal in the alternative CD2-mediated pathway of T cell activation.

Recent studies have demonstrated that IL-1 and IL-6 are synergistic accessory signals for activation of T cells. In this study, highly purified human T cells were cultured with either a stimulating pair of anti-CD2 mAb or with immobilized anti-CD3 mAb. Monocytes, a cellfree monocyte culture supernatant or IL-1 were required for anti-CD2-stimulated T cell proliferation, and they each strongly enhanced anti-CD3-induced T cell growth. IL-6 was synergistic with IL-1 as a helper factor for T cell growth after activation via CD2, but we could not demonstrate any effect of IL-6 in the CD3 pathway. The mechanism of the synergistic helper activity of IL-1 and IL-6 on T cell activation in the CD2 pathway was further examined. IL-1 (but not IL-6) was required for induction of IL-2 production. Both IL-1 and IL-6 enhanced IL-2R (p55) expression and the proliferative response to IL-2. T cell proliferation after stimulation with anti-CD2 and IL-1 or IL-1/IL-6 proceeded through an autocrine IL-2-dependent pathway. Moreover we found that, in the absence of IL-1, IL-6 still supported a transient and limited proliferation of anti-CD2- (but not of anti-CD3-) stimulated T cells, which apparently was independent of the autocrine growth factors IL-2 or IL-4. Our data suggest that IL-6 is important as an accessory signal for T cell growth in the CD2 pathway of T cell activation.

Accessory cell-derived helper signals in human T-cell activation with phytohemagglutinin: induction of interleukin 2-responsiveness by interleukin 6, and production of interleukin 2 by interleukin 1 [corrected].

Interleukins (IL-) 1 and 6 have been shown to represent accessory signals for T-cell activation. In the present study, we further examined the effects of both cytokines on accessory cell-depleted human T cells stimulated with phytohemagglutinin (PHA). The addition of IL-6 to the cultures resulted in T-cell proliferation; however, IL-1 was unable to support PHA-induced T-cell growth. The addition of IL-1 consistently induced a low level of IL-2 production and strongly enhanced T-cell proliferation in the presence of IL-6. Thus, the effect of IL-1 on T-cell growth becomes apparent only in the presence of IL-6. Blocking the IL-2-receptor (IL-2R) with the monoclonal antibodies anti-Tac and MikBêta 1 (directed to the alpha and bêta chains of the IL-2R, respectively) had no effect on PHA/IL-6-supported proliferation, but completely eliminated the growth-enhancing effect of IL-1. On the other hand, a neutralizing anti-IL-4-antiserum did not affect PHA/IL-6- or PHA/IL-6/IL-1-induced proliferation. Further experiments showed that IL-6 enhances T-cell responsiveness to IL-2, as evidenced by enhanced IL-2-induced proliferation. However, we could not find an effect of IL-6 on the expression of IL-2R as measured by staining with anti-Tac and with MikBêta 1 or by binding of (125I)-IL-2 to T cells. It can be concluded from these studies that IL-1 and IL-6 have different helper effects on PHA-induced T-cell activation. In the presence of PHA, IL-6 induces limited IL-2/IL-4-independent growth, and more importantly it renders T cells responsive to IL-2. IL-1 provides a signal leading to IL-2 production. The combination of IL-1 and IL-6 represents a synergistic helper signal, leading to an IL-2-dependent pathway of proliferation.

The anti-T cell monoclonal antibody 9.3 (anti-CD28) provides a helper signal and bypasses the need for accessory cells in T cell activation with immobilized anti-CD3 and mitogens.

CD28 is an antigen of 44 kDa which is expressed on the membrane of the majority of human T cells. The present study examines the functional effects of an anti-CD28 monoclonal antibody (mAb 9.3) on T cell activation induced with immobilized anti-CD3 mAb OKT3 or with mitogens, in the absence of accessory cells. To this end, we used blood resting T cells that were completely depleted of accessory cells (monocytes, B cells, and natural killer cells), and consequently did not respond to recombinant interleukin-2 (rIL-2), to immobilized OKT3, to PHA, or to Con A. Addition of mAb 9.3 to the cultures enhanced IL-2 receptor expression (Tac antigen) on PHA- or immobilized OKT3-stimulated T cells and induced IL-2 receptors on Con A-stimulated T cells. Moreover, addition of mAb 9.3 to cultures of T cells stimulated with PHA, Con A, or immobilized OKT3 resulted in IL-2 production. Soluble mAb 9.3 was a sufficient helper signal for T cell proliferation in response to PHA or immobilized OKT3. Crosslinking of mAb 9.3 by culture on anti-mouse IgG-coated plates enhanced the helper effect and was an essential requirement for the induction of T cell proliferation in response to Con A. No other anti-T cell mAb (anti-CD2, -CD4, -CD5, -CD7, -CD8) was found to provide a complete accessory signal for PHA or Con A stimulation of purified T cells. T cell proliferation induced by the combination of PHA and mAb 9.3 was strongly inhibited by the anti-IL-2 receptor mAb anti-Tac. In conclusion, mAb 9.3 can provide a signal bypassing monocyte requirement in T cell activation with immobilized OKT3, PHA, and Con A, resulting in an autocrine IL-2-dependent pathway of proliferation.