Modulation of oxidative neurometabolism in ischemia/reperfusion by nitrite.

Nitrite has been viewed essentially as an inert metabolic endpoint of nitric oxide (•NO). However, under certain conditions, nitrite can be a source of •NO. In the brain, this alternative source of •NO production independent of nitric oxide synthase activity may be particularly relevant in ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), where low oxygen availability limits enzymatic production of •NO. Notably, in vivo concentration of nitrite can be easily increased with diet, through the ingestion of nitrate-rich foods, opening the window for a therapeutic intervention based on diet. Considering the modulation of mitochondrial respiration by •NO, we have hypothesized that the protective action of nitrite in I/R may also result from modulation of mitochondrial function. We used high-resolution respirometry to evaluate the effects of nitrite in two in vitro models of I/R. In both cases, an increase in oxygen flux was observed following reoxygenation, a phenomenon that has been coined "oxidative burst". The amplitude of this "oxidative burst" was decreased by nitrite in a concentration-dependent manner. Additionally, a pilot in vivo study in which animals received a nitrate-rich diet as a strategy to increase circulating and tissue levels of nitrite also revealed that the "oxidative burst" was decreased in the nitrate-treated animals. These results may provide mechanistic support to the observation of a protective effect of nitrite in situations of brain ischemia.

The bioactivity of neuronal-derived nitric oxide in aging and neurodegeneration: Switching signaling to degeneration.

The small and diffusible free radical nitric oxide (•NO) has fascinated biological and medical scientists since it was promoted from atmospheric air pollutant to biological ubiquitous signaling molecule. Its unique physical chemical properties expand beyond its radical nature to include fast diffusion in aqueous and lipid environments and selective reactivity in a biological setting determined by bioavailability and reaction rate constants with biomolecules. In the brain, •NO is recognized as a key player in numerous physiological processes ranging from neurotransmission/neuromodulation to neurovascular coupling and immune response. Furthermore, changes in its bioactivity are central to the molecular pathways associated with brain aging and neurodegeneration. The understanding of •NO bioactivity in the brain, however, requires the knowledge of its concentration dynamics with high spatial and temporal resolution upon stimulation of its synthesis. Here we revise our current understanding of the role of neuronal-derived •NO in brain physiology, aging and degeneration, focused on changes in the extracellular concentration dynamics of this free radical and the regulation of bioenergetic metabolism and neurovascular coupling.

Coupling of ascorbate and nitric oxide dynamics in vivo in the rat hippocampus upon glutamatergic neuronal stimulation: a novel functional interplay.

BACKGROUND: Ascorbate and neuronal-derived nitric oxide (NO) play regulatory roles in the brain that tare dependent on their compartmentalization and diffusion. Glutamatergic activation triggers both ascorbate fluxes toward extracellular medium and NO production. The information on the profiles of change in time and space upon glutamatergic activation is scarce and yet this knowledge is important for the understanding of ascorbate and NO functions in vivo, in particular in the case of a coupled interaction between both dynamics. HYPOTHESIS: NO produced upon NMDA receptor activation is a modulator of ascorbate release to the extracellular space. METHODS: In this work, carbon fiber microelectrodes for simultaneous measurements of these substances in the hippocampus were used to collect information about ascorbate and NO dynamic profiles in real time. RESULTS: Glutamate stimulation evoked transient ascorbate and NO signals with high degree of spatial and temporal correlation between them. Combined experiments encompassing direct stimulus with NO and inhibitors of glutamate uptake and nNOS provided additional evidence supporting the modulator role of NO in the release of ascorbate to the extracellular space. CONCLUSIONS: The coupling between NO and ascorbate upon glutamatergic activation points to a functional impact on the activities of both compounds and, although the precise molecular mechanism needs to be clarified, such a coupling lays the foundations for new regulatory mechanisms in the brain.

The pattern of glutamate-induced nitric oxide dynamics in vivo and its correlation with nNOS expression in rat hippocampus, cerebral cortex and striatum.

Nitric oxide (NO) is a diffusible intercellular messenger, acting via volume signaling in the brain and, therefore, the knowledge of its temporal dynamics is determinant to the understanding of its neurobiological role. However, such an analysis in vivo is challenging and indirect or static approaches are mostly used to infer NO bioactivity. In the present work we measured the glutamate-dependent NO temporal dynamics in vivo in the hippocampus (CA1, CA3 and DG subregions), cerebral cortex and striatum, using NO selective microelectrodes. Concurrently, the immunolocalization of nNOS was evaluated in each region. A transitory increase in NO levels occurred at higher amplitudes in the striatum and hippocampus relatively to the cortex. In the hippocampus, subtle differences in the profiles of NO signals were observed along the trisynaptic loop, with CA1 exhibiting the largest signals. The topography of NO temporal dynamics did not fully overlap with the pattern of the density of nNOS expression, suggesting that, complementary to the distribution of nNOS, the local regulation of NO synthesis as well as the decay pathways critically determine the effective NO concentration sensed by a target within the diffusional spread of this free radical. In sum, the rate and pattern of NO changes here shown, by incorporating regulatory mechanisms and processes that affect NO synthesis and decay, provide refined information critical for the understanding of NO multiple actions in the brain.

Formulation and evaluation of rizatriptan benzoate mouth disintegrating tablets.

The present investigation deals with development of mouth disintegrating tablets of rizatriptan benzoate to produce the intended benefits. Mouth disintegrating tablets of rizatriptan benzoate were prepared using superdisintegrants crospovidone, carboxymethylcellulose calcium, Indion 414 and Indion 234 using the direct compression method. The tablets prepared were evaluated for thickness, uniformity of weight, content uniformity, hardness, friability, wetting time, in vitro and in vivo disintegration time, mouth feel, in vitro drug release and assay by high performance liquid chromatography. The tablets disintegrated in vitro and in vivo within 4 to 7 s and 6 to 19 s, respectively. Almost 90% of drug was released from all formulations within 20 min. The drug release from the formulations followed first order kinetics. Stability studies of the tablets at 40+/-2 degrees /75%+/-5% RH for 1 mo showed non significant drug loss. The formulation containing combination of crospovidone and Indion 234 was found to give the best results. Apart from fulfilling all official and other specifications, the tablets exhibited higher rate of release.

Formulation and evaluation of once daily minocycline hydrochloride extended release matrix tablets.

The present study was aimed to develop once daily extended release matrix tablets of minocycline hydrochloride, using hydroxypropylmethylcellulose either alone or in combination with ethyl cellulose as the matrix material in different proportions. The formulated tablets were also compared with a marketed product. The results of the dissolution study indicate that formulations FC-IV, FC-V and FC-VI showed maximum drug release upto 24 h, whereas the marketed product was found to extend the release only up to 14 h. Incase of formulations containing combination of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and ethyl cellulose (FC-I to FC-IX), the release of the drug was found to be dependent on the relative proportions of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose and ethyl cellulose used in the tablet matrix. Mathematical treatment of the in vitro drug release data suggests that, all the formulations best fitted into first order release kinetics. Drug release from the matrix occurred by combination of two mechanisms, diffusion of drug from tablet matrix and erosion of tablet surface, which was reflected from Higuchi's model and Erosion plot.