Depression among Sesotho speakers in Mangaung, South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: Depression will be the most common mental disorder by 2020, and it is also expected to be the second leading cause of disability, after cardiac diseases. Moreover, depression is likely to be a major public health burden in the future. This study evaluates the influences of culture on the symptoms of depression among Sesotho speakers. METHOD: An evaluation of a sample of 100 participants diagnosed with depression was conducted, using the Psychiatric Interview Questionnaire. RESULTS: It was found that depression among Sesotho speakers is manifested in three areas: somatic symptoms, perceptual disturbances and disturbances of the thought processes. CONCLUSION: Since it has become clear, on the basis of the investigation, that depression is a culturally diverse phenomenon, the authors also recommend that research in this regard should be conducted from a multidisciplinary perspective, so that other paradigms, including those of sociology and anthropology, can also be included.

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Exposure to Violence among Venda and Nothern Sotho Adolescents

In this study; two research questions were posed. In the first place; this study investigated the levels of exposure to violence among the adolescents as a total group (Venda- and Northern Sotho-speaking); as well as the exposure levels of the two ethnic groups. The relationship between the groups' exposure to violence and their post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms was investigated in the second place; as well as the question whether a difference existed between the two ethnic groups in respect of this relationship. The participants were comprised of 186 Venda and 151 Northern Sotho adolescents; who completed the Child PTSD Checklist (PTSDC) and the Child Exposure to Violence Form (CEVF). A large proportion of participants reported high levels of exposure to violence. Venda youth appeared to be subjected to a higher rate of victimisation than the Northern Sotho adolescents. A strong correlation was found between exposure to violence and PTSD symptoms

The effect of hypnotic training programs on the academic performance of students.

The main objective of the present study was to empirically verify the effect of hypnotic training programs on the academic performance of students. A pre and posttest design was used. Two experimental and two control groups (total sample N=119) of volunteer second year psychology students at the University of Stellenbosch in South Africa comprised the sample. One of the experimental groups was exposed to active alert hypnosis and the other to relaxation hypnosis. One control group was exposed to progressive relaxation, while the other did not receive any intervention. The participants' April grades were used as a pretest, while their June grades served as a posttest. The two hypnotic training programs had a significant effect on the academic achievement of the participants, which was not found in the control groups. Regarding the efficacy of the two programs, however, no significant difference was found.

The effect of confidence and method of questioning on eyewitness testimony.

Very often eyewitnesses are perceived as being accurate due to the confidence in the accuracy of their own testimony. The confidence displayed by an eyewitness may possibly be increased by the method of questioning used by legal professionals and police. The present study examines the confidence-accuracy relationship and the effect the method of questioning (open-ended versus closed-ended questions) may have on the confidence of eyewitnesses. The sample of 412 respondents consisted of scholars (11 to 14-year-olds), university students, the public and Police College students. A significant relationship between memory accuracy and confidence was found for more than 70% of the questions. Closed-ended questions provided a significantly higher rate of accuracy than open-ended questions. A significantly larger proportion of respondents to the closed-ended questions were more confident about their answers than those who responded to the open-ended questions.

Method of questioning and the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.

System variables are integrally part of factors that can be controlled by the legal system to enhance the accuracy of testimony by eyewitnesses. Apart from examining the relationship between questioning as system variable and the accuracy of testimony, the present study furthermore explores the relationship between type of questioning and certain biographical variables (occupation, age, gender and race). To achieve the aim of the study, 412 respondents consisting of 11 to 14-year-olds, university students, the public and Police College students participated and were exposed to open-ended or closed-ended questions. It was found that the participants who responded to the closed-ended questions were significantly more accurate than those who answered the open-ended questions. All the biographical groups, except the public, were more accurate in responding to the closed-ended questions. The scholars obtained the lowest scores (although not always significant) for both the open-ended and closed-ended questions. With respect to age the 18 to 25-year-olds obtained significantly higher scores than the other groups for the closed-ended questions. Whites performed significantly better than blacks in response to the open-ended and closed-ended questions.

The relationship between memory and the recall of specific details.

When eyewitnesses are exposed to an event, certain details tend to capture their attention more than other details, which ensures the better recall of the details that were observed. As little research has focussed on the relationship between certain biographical variables (occupation, age, gender, race and retention period) and specific event details, the present study attempts to shed some light on this area. A sample of 295 participants was obtained from 12- to 14-year-olds, university students, the public and Police College students that were divided into a short-term and long-term memory group. The details that were focussed on in the questionnaire were divided into obvious physiognomic, less pronounced physiognomic, clothing, circumstantial, and action-related details. Between the short-term and long-term memory groups it was found that significant differences were indicated for only certain items related to obvious physiognomic details, clothing details, circumstantial evidence and action-related details. For all the different biographical groups significant differences were found for certain items belonging to the different groups of details.

Memory accuracy of a real-life simulated incident.

Due to an awareness that both laboratory and real-life research present limitations, the present study attempts to combine the two research approaches, making use of the strengths of both methodologies. A real-life situation was created in a classroom and combined with laboratory conditions to determine the influence of certain variables (occupation, age, gender, race and retention interval) on the accuracy of eyewitness reporting. A total of 295 participants consisting of 12- to 14-year-olds, University students, the public and Police College students were divided into a short- and long-term memory group. The short-term group were assessed immediately after witnessing the incident, while the long-term group were only assessed five to six weeks later. It was found that the effect of passage of time was insubstantial; however, the performance of the short-term group had already been disconcertingly poor. The school children did not perform significantly less well than other occupational groups, and the members of the Police did not perform significantly better than the other groups. No significant differences were found for the different gender and racial groups.

The effect of violent versus non-violent incidents on eyewitness memory.

As South Africans are daily subjected to violent incidents for which they are summoned to testify about in court, months or years after the event in question occurred, it is of importance to determine the effect violence has on memory after an extended period of time. The present study not only aimed to determine the accuracy of short-term and long-term memory after exposure to a violent and non-violent incident, but also the relationship between short-term and long-term memory and different biographical variables (occupation, age, gender and race). Four-hundred-and-seventy-four respondents consisting of university students, the business sector and Police College students participated and were divided into a short-term and long-term memory group. After a five to six week retention period a significant decrease in the accuracy scores for both the violent and non-violent incident occurred. Significant higher average scores for all the biographical groups in the short-term memory group in comparisons with the long-term memory groups were obtained.

A South African perspective on children's rights: pertinent issues in remedial and protection interventions.

This article focuses on specific issues that pose a threat to the application of children's rights in South Africa. Under remedial interventions survival, development and the standard of living and health will be discussed; while issues pertaining to children's right to education and parental care are also addressed. As far as protection interventions are concerned attention will be paid to abuse and neglect, child labour and children in difficult situations such as violence, disabilities, juvenile justice and street children.

Children's rights: a review of children's and adults' perceptions.

The way in which children perceive their rights along with the type of rights they feel they should be afforded, is affected by a variety of factors. The studies reviewed in this article show that aspects such as level of development, culture, socio-economic status, age, gender, environment, religious affiliation and contextualization all play an important role in children's rights reasoning. The deduction hence made is that the field of children's perceptions of their rights is a complex one, calling for many considerations to be addressed before any legislation pertaining to these rights can be made. Since children are to a large extent governed by adults, it was also decided to include a review of adults' perceptions of children's rights in the article. Factors that played a role in the adults' perceptions included age, marital status, religious affiliation, ethnicity and level of education. The studies reviewed showed that generally adults felt more comfortable affording children nurturance and protection rights rather than freedom and choice rights, though the age of the child was seen as an important consideration in this choice. An important balance between the rights of the child and the rights of the adults, into whose care children are entrusted, is furthermore suggested, since both need to be considered in legislative decisions.

Children's rights: a review.

The issue of children's rights has become very prominent over the past few decades during which attempts were being made to formulate an international agreement about the person status of children world-wide. These attempts have brought together and formalised a trend that has evolved over at least 400 years to broaden and develop society's understanding and acceptance of children as unique, necessary valuable societal assets. The ensuing social evolution in the realm of children's rights has led most countries to the understanding that by investing in and protecting children's best interests, a solid foundation is laid for healthy nation-building. This review article focuses on a variety of documented aspects pertaining to the topic of children's rights. Definitions and descriptions of various types of children's rights are given as well as the arguments posed for and against. Finally the various proposals and motivations for the inclusion of certain types of children's rights as they presently occur in the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child are noted and discussed.

A South African perspective on children's rights: general principles.

South Africa has made rapid progress in the field of human and especially children's rights. This is in sharp contrast with it's apartheid history where even the basic principles of human rights were negated. In this article an overview will be given of the general principles on which the realization of children's rights in South Africa are based. More specifically information on the population, economic status, political climate and recent developments in this field is presented. This is followed by a discussion on the social-economic nature of children's rights, the courts as enforcement mechanisms, and the contents of the best interest standard as described both in convention on the rights of the child and the South African Constitution.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development: insights into rights reasoning.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development was based on extensive research done on the reactions of people of all ages to specific moral situational dilemmas. Kohlberg was specifically interested in reasoning processes involved in decision-making. The way in which children perceive their rights is also based on reasoning processes that are inextricably linked to their level of development and more specifically to their level of moral development since the area of human rights can be considered essentially moral. Since Kohlberg's theory is primarily concerned with development, a great deal of insight can be gained into the developmental shift that occurs in children's reasoning about the rights to which they feel they should be entitled. This article focuses on Kohlberg's six-stage theory, specifically as it pertains to reasoning processes similar to those that would be used in rights reasoning. At each stage the authors propose a potential view of how children at each developmental stage might perceive their rights based on the description Kohlberg gives of the developmental trends associated with each stage. A critical assessment of Kohlberg's work is also given in order to highlight certain considerations about the limitations of this theory that need to be considered for future research.

Children's rights: reasoning and their level of moral development: an empirical investigation.

Children's reasoning about their rights is largely determined by their level of development. Since rights-reasoning concerns essentially moral issues, the best foundation to contextualise the developmental process mentioned would be to consider a moral-developmental approach. In this regard Kohlberg's theory of moral development has been found to be the primary theory that researchers have built on. The article focuses on an empirical investigation done with 312 South African children of varying ages, cultures and language groups into their level of moral-development and rights-reasoning. The two questionnaires used were Kohlberg's Standard Issue Score (Form B) and Melton's Children's Rights Interview. The most important findings made were that Kohlberg's theory of universalizability and unvariant order of sequence along with its applicability to gender and culture was confirmed for this South African study. Furthermore an important correlation between rights-reasoning development and level of moral ethical development was made which implies that an interdependent relationship exists between them.

Law and psychology: a historical perspective (1).

In this first of a series of three articles, the relationship between law and psychology is discussed from a historical perspective. The article is divided into four sections: First, the early developments are described. Secondly, the use of medical knowledge and experts in Roman law is discussed. Thirdly, attention is devoted to the legal status of the mentally ill during the Middle Ages and how the thirteenth century appears to have been a turning-point in this regard. Lastly, important medicolegal developments during the Renaissance and the replacement of the belief in witchcraft by a more scientific approach are described.

Expert evidence: the emergence of psychiatry and psychology (2).

In this second of a series of three articles, attention is devoted to the developing role of psychiatrists and psychologists as expert witnesses. As far as psychiatry is concerned, the first recorded use of psychiatric evidence in an English court dates back to the first half of the eighteenth century, but it was not until the nineteenth century that psychiatry was recognized as a field that could contribute significantly to the law. Developments in South Africa regarding forensic psychiatry followed a similar pattern. As for psychology, immediately after its emergence as an autonomous science late in the nineteenth century, it interacted with law. Developments from the stormy early years to the present in the United Kingdom are discussed.

Law and psychology in South Africa: development and recommendations (3).

In this last article in a series, the historical development and present status of forensic psychology in South Africa are discussed. First, a critical comparison is made between the legal status of forensic psychologists and that of psychiatrists, and reasons for the present situation are given. Secondly, the reasons why psychologists may soon be expected to play a more important role in the forensic field, are discussed. Lastly, prerequisites for the development of forensic psychology in South Africa are listed: the need for a sound theoretical and clinical knowledge of the chosen field or fields of psychology, knowledge of the relevant legal principles in the specific legal field, the promotion of research and the address of ethical aspects of forensic psychology.

Amoxapine in the treatment of depression. A clinical evaluation in ambulant patients.

Amoxapine (Demolox; Lederle), an antidepressive agent, was administered to 24 patients suffering from pathological depression in an open uncontrolled single-blind study. The dosage ranged from 75 to 150 mg/d. Four patients dropped out of the study owing to side-effects and 1 because of rapid improvement. The 19 showed a marked improvement and experienced no side-effects. There were firm indications that improvement can be expected within 7 days.