Antibiotic waste in a pediatric healthcare system: Wasting drugs that are in limited supply.

In a pediatric hospital system over 2 years, 58,607 doses of antibiotic were wasted, an average of 80 doses per day, including drugs in shortage nationwide. Approximately 50% of waste occurred within the first 2 days of admission or the day of discharge, with ampicillin being the most wasted drug (N = 7,789 doses).

Optimizing Antibiotic Treatment of Skin Infections in Pediatric Emergency and Urgent Care Centers.

OBJECTIVES: The objective was to optimize antibiotic choice and duration for uncomplicated skin/soft tissue infections (SSTIs) discharged from pediatric emergency departments (EDs) and urgent cares (UCs). METHODS: Pediatric patients aged 0 to 18 years discharged from 3 pediatric EDs and 8 UCs with a diagnosis of uncomplicated SSTIs were included. Optimal treatment was defined as 5 days of cephalexin for nonpurulent SSTIs and 7 days of clindamycin or trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole for purulent SSTIs. Exclusion criteria included erysipelas, folliculitis, felon, impetigo, lymphangitis, paronychia, perianal abscess, phlegmon, preseptal or orbital cellulitis, and cephalosporin allergy. Baseline data were collected from January 2018 to June 2019. Quality improvement (QI) interventions began July 2019 with a revised SSTI guideline, discharge order set, and maintenance of certification (MOC) QI project. MOC participants received 3 education sessions, monthly group feedback, and individual scorecards. Balancing measures included return visits within 10 days requiring escalation of care. Data were monitored through March 2021. RESULTS: In total, 9306 SSTIs were included. The MOC QI project included 50 ED and UC physicians (27% of eligible physicians). For purulent SSTI, optimal antibiotic choice, plus duration, increased from a baseline median of 28% to 64%. For nonpurulent SSTI, optimal antibiotic choice, plus duration, increased from a median of 2% to 43%. MOC participants had greater improvement than non-MOC providers (P < .010). Return visits did not significantly change pre- to postintervention, remaining <2%. CONCLUSIONS: We improved optimal choice and reduced duration of antibiotic treatment of outpatient SSTIs. MOC participation was associated with greater improvement and was sustained after the intervention period.

Automated Identification of Immunocompromised Status in Critically Ill Children.

BACKGROUND: Easy identification of immunocompromised hosts (ICHs) would allow for stratification of culture results based on host type. METHODS: We utilized antimicrobial stewardship program (ASP) team notes written during handshake stewardship rounds in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) as the gold standard for host status; clinical notes from the primary team, medication orders during the encounter, problem list, and billing diagnoses documented prior to the ASP documentation were extracted to develop models that predict host status. We calculated performance for three models based on diagnoses/medications, with and without natural language processing from clinical notes. The susceptibility of pathogens causing bacteremia to commonly used empiric antibiotic regimens was then stratified by host status. RESULTS: We identified 844 antimicrobial episodes from 666 unique patients; 160 (18.9%) were identified as ICHs. We randomly selected 675 initiations (80%) for model training and 169 initiations (20%) for testing. A rule-based model using diagnoses and medications alone yielded a sensitivity of 0.87 (08.6-0.88), specificity of 0.93 (0.92-0.93), and positive predictive value (PPV) of 0.74 (0.73-0.75). Adding clinical notes into XGBoost model led to improved specificity of 0.98 (0.98-0.98) and PPV of 0.9 (0.88-0.91), but with decreased sensitivity 0.77 (0.76-0.79). There were 77 bacteremia episodes during the study period identified and a host-specific visualization was created. CONCLUSIONS: An electronic health record-based phenotype based on notes, diagnoses, and medications identifies ICH in the PICU with high specificity.

Disparities in rural-vs-urban achievement of millennium development goals in Cambodia: implications for current and future child health.

BACKGROUND: Cambodia has made significant economic, political, and health advancements with the implementation of the millennium development goals (MDG). Important gaps in child health still exist, however, and accurate assessments of lingering disparities within the country will be essential for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals by 2030. AIM: This investigation hypothesised that child-health improvements in rural areas of Cambodia continue to lag behind urban areas. The study objective was to identify specific disparities in rural achievement of MDG within Cambodia to direct future work in child health. METHODS: Surveys were conducted in 230 rural households in four villages in Kampot and Kampong Speu provinces to assess risk factors contributing to lack of village-level achievement of MDG. National urban and rural data were used for comparison. RESULTS: An under-5 death in the preceding year was reported by 11.5% (n = 26) of the households surveyed. Under-use of common public health interventions (vaccinations, clean drinking water, oral rehydration therapy, iodised salt, bed nets, antenatal care, and improved sanitation facilities) was observed in all villages. Under-use of the interventions was more common in rural than urban areas. CONCLUSION: Achievement of child-health-related MDG lags in rural areas of Cambodia. Child health risk factors varied widely among villages. Village-specific risk factors for which immediate action can be taken are a priority, particularly vaccination in Angkcheay and Takoa and clean drinking water in Pos Pong. Elimination of disparities in rural child health will ultimately require significant resource allocation in rural areas, e.g. improved sanitation facilities, piped water supply and sustained public health initiatives.

Development and implementation challenges of a quality assured HIV infant diagnosis program in Nigeria using dried blood spots and DNA polymerase chain reaction.

Nigeria has one of the highest HIV burdens as well as mother-to-infant transmission rates in the world. A pilot program using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based testing of dried blood spot (DBS) specimens was implemented to enable early identification of HIV-infected infants and timely referral and linkage to care. From February 2007 to October 2008, whole blood was collected by finger prick to prepare DBS from infants <18 months presenting in six public mother-and-child health facilities in Lagos, Nigeria. The DBS were tested using the Roche Amplicor HIV-1 DNA Test, v1.5. To monitor laboratory testing quality, all of the PCR-positive and 10% of the PCR-negative DBS were retested by the same method at another reference laboratory. Three hundred and sixty-five randomly selected infants were screened using HIV rapid tests (RT) according to the national algorithm and RT-negative and PCR-positive specimens were also tested using Genscreen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (EIA) (Bio-Rad, France). The turnaround time (TAT) from sample collection, testing, and dispatching of results from each health facility was monitored. A total of 1,273 infants with a median age of 12.6 weeks (1 day to 71.6 weeks) participated in the program and 280 (22.0%) were PCR positive. HIV transmission levels varied greatly in the different health facilities ranging from 7.1% to 38.4%. Infants aged 48 to 72 weeks had the highest level of PCR positivity (41.1%). All PCR-positive specimens were confirmed by retesting. The mean turnaround time from DBS collection to returning of the laboratory result to the health facilities was 25 days. Three infants were found to be HIV antibody negative by rapid tests but were positive by both PCR and the fourth generation EIA. The DBS-based PCR program accurately identified all of the HIV-infected infants. However, many programmatic challenges related to the laboratory and TAT were identified.

Follow-up of infants diagnosed with HIV - Early Infant Diagnosis Program, Francistown, Botswana, 2005-2012.

The 2011 prevalence of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) among pregnant women in Botswana was 30.4%. High coverage rates of HIV testing and antiretroviral prophylaxis have reduced the rate of mother-to-child transmission of HIV in Botswana from as high as 40% with no prophylaxis to <4% in 2011. In June 2005, the national Early Infant Diagnosis (EID) Program began testing HIV-exposed infants (i.e., those born to HIV-infected mothers) for HIV using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) at 6 weeks postpartum. During 2005-2012, follow-up of all HIV-infected infants diagnosed in all 13 postnatal care facilities in Francistown, Botswana, was conducted to ascertain patient outcomes. A total of 202 infants were diagnosed with HIV. As of September 2013, 82 (41%) children were alive and on antiretroviral therapy (ART), 79 (39%) had died, and 41 (20%) were either lost to follow-up, had transferred, or their mothers declined ART. Despite success in preventing mother-to-child transmission in Botswana, results of the EID program highlight the need for early diagnosis of HIV-infected infants, prompt initiation of ART, and retention in care.

Challenges in infant and young child nutrition in the context of HIV.

There is consensus on the benefits for all infants of exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months and introduction of appropriate complementary foods at 6 months, followed by continued breastfeeding. However, guidelines on infant and young child feeding (IYCF) for HIV-positive mothers have changed continually since 2000. This article explores issues and evidence related to IYCF for the prevention and care of paediatric HIV in resource-limited settings in light of new HIV treatment guidelines, implementation challenges and knowledge gaps.In 2010 the impact of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) on reducing the risk of mother-to-child transmission of HIV moved WHO to urge countries to endorse either avoidance of all breastfeeding or exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months while taking ARVs, depending on which strategy could give their infants the greatest chance of HIV-free survival. Implementation of the 2010 recommendations is challenged by lack of healthcare provider training, weak clinic-community linkages to support mother/infant pairs and lack of national monitoring and reporting on infant feeding indicators.More evidence is needed to inform prevention and treatment of malnutrition among HIV-exposed and HIV-infected children. Knowledge gaps include the effects of prolonged ARV exposure, the cause of HIV-associated growth faltering, the effects of early infant testing on continuation of breastfeeding and specific nutrition interventions needed for HIV-infected children.Significant progress has been made toward keeping mothers alive and reducing paediatric HIV infection, but sustained political, financial and scientific commitment are required to ensure meaningful interventions to eliminate postnatal transmission and meet the nutritional needs of HIV-exposed and HIV-infected children.

Hospitalization and mortality among primarily nonbreastfed children during a large outbreak of diarrhea and malnutrition in Botswana, 2006.

BACKGROUND: In 2006, a pediatric diarrhea outbreak occurred in Botswana, coinciding with heavy rains. Surveillance recorded a 3 times increase in cases and a 25 fold increase in deaths between January and March. Botswana has high HIV prevalence among pregnant women (33.4% in 2005), and an estimated 35% of all infants under the age of 6 months are not breastfed. METHODS: We followed all children <5 years old with diarrhea in the country's second largest referral hospital at the peak of the outbreak by chart review, interviewed mothers, and conducted laboratory testing for HIV and enteric pathogens. RESULTS: Of 153 hospitalized children with diarrhea, 97% were <2 years old; 88% of these were not breastfeeding. HIV was diagnosed in 18% of children and 64% of mothers. Cryptosporidium and enteropathogenic Escherichia coli were common; many children had multiple pathogens. Severe acute malnutrition (kwashiorkor or marasmus) developed in 38 (25%) patients, and 33 (22%) died. Kwashiorkor increased risk for death (relative risk 2.0; P = 0.05); only one breastfeeding child died. Many children who died had been undersupplied with formula. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the severe morbidity and mortality in this outbreak occurred in children who were HIV negative and not breastfed. Feeding and nutritional factors were the most important determinants of severe illness and death. Breastfeeding is critical to infant survival in the developing world, and support for breastfeeding among HIV-negative women, and HIV-positive women who cannot formula feed safely, may prevent further high-mortality outbreaks.

Population-based study of a widespread outbreak of diarrhea associated with increased mortality and malnutrition in Botswana, January-March, 2006.

In early 2006, coinciding with heavy rains, Botswana health facilities reported increases in diarrhea, mortality, and acute malnutrition among young children. Data on diarrhea, human immunodeficiency virus, feeding, mortality, and water/sanitation were collected by random cluster survey. Anthropometric data were measured and drinking water samples were tested. Of 537 surveyed children less than five years of age, one-third experienced >or= 1 episode of diarrhea. Prevalence of acute malnutrition was 7.9%, and the mortality rate for children less than five years of age was 2.6/10,000/day during the outbreak. Significant risk factors for diarrhea included an age less than two years; breastfeeding was protective. Diarrhea lasting for more than 14 days and failure to thrive were risk factors for acute malnutrition. Prevalence of acute malnutrition was higher than previously documented and the mortality rate in children less than five years of age during the outbreak was above the international threshold for emergency action with an estimated 547 excess deaths. This survey highlights the need for safe infant feeding and effective treatment of malnutrition and diarrhea in young children.

Early diagnosis of human immunodeficiency virus in infants using polymerase chain reaction on dried blood spots in Botswana's national program for prevention of mother-to-child transmission.

BACKGROUND: Botswana has high antenatal human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevalence (33.4%). The public health system provides free services for prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV (PMTCT) and antiretroviral therapy, which can reduce vertical HIV transmission from 35% to <5%. Infant HIV diagnosis is challenging in resource-limited settings, and HIV prevalence among HIV-exposed infants in Botswana is unknown. Dried blood spot (DBS) polymerase chain reaction (PCR) provides a feasible method to assess PMTCT programs and identify HIV-infected children. METHODS: We trained staff in 15 clinics and a hospital to obtain DBS on HIV-exposed infants age 6 weeks to 17 months receiving routine care. Samples were sent to the national HIV reference laboratory. Roche Amplicor 1.5 DNA PCR testing was performed. RESULTS: Between June-December 2005, 1931 HIV-exposed infants age 6 weeks to 17 months were tested for HIV, of whom 136 (7.0%) were HIV infected. Among infants

Infant human immunodeficiency virus diagnosis in resource-limited settings: issues, technologies, and country experiences.

Diagnosing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in infants is difficult because maternal HIV antibodies cross the placenta, causing positive serologic tests in HIV-exposed infants for the first several months of life. Early definitive diagnosis of HIV requires virologic testing such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which is the diagnostic standard in resource-rich settings but has been too complex and expensive for widespread use in most countries with high HIV prevalence. Early PCR testing can help HIV-infected infants access treatment, provide psychosocial benefits for families of uninfected infants, and help programs for prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV monitor their effectiveness. HIV testing, including PCR, is increasingly available for infants in resource-limited settings, but there are many barriers and complex policy decisions that need to be addressed before universal early testing can become standard. This paper reviews challenges and progress in the field and suggests ways to facilitate early infant testing in resource-limited settings.