The P2RX7 polymorphism rs2230912 is associated with depression: A meta-analysis.

Various studies have investigated whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the gene purinergic receptor P2X7 (P2RX7), and rs2230912 specifically, were associated with mood disorders. While some studies found positive evidence, a large number of studies reported no significant associations. In a previously published meta-analysis, Feng et al. did not find a significant association and only moderate odds ratios (ORs) in case-control studies. They reported significant findings only for family-based studies. We revisited this finding and conducted a meta-analysis including 8,652 cases and 11,153 controls, adding unpublished results from the Munich Antidepressant Response Signature (MARS) study. We found a significant association between rs2230912 and combined mood disorders (major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar disorder (BD)) for the allelic, dominant and heterozygous-disadvantage model, all withstanding the threshold of correction for multiple testing. Stratifying by disorder revealed significant findings for the MDD-subgroup (OR of 1.12 for the allelic model), while the BD-subgroup presented with a lower effect size (OR of 1.05) and no significance. P2RX7 encodes a purinergic receptor which is expressed in the brain and also localized in immune cells. Animal studies and functional studies will be necessary to enlighten its involvement in the etiology of mood disorders and its applicability for pharmacological purposes.

Genetic effects influencing risk for major depressive disorder in China and Europe.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a common, complex psychiatric disorder and a leading cause of disability worldwide. Despite twin studies indicating its modest heritability (~30-40%), extensive heterogeneity and a complex genetic architecture have complicated efforts to detect associated genetic risk variants. We combined single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) summary statistics from the CONVERGE and PGC studies of MDD, representing 10 502 Chinese (5282 cases and 5220 controls) and 18 663 European (9447 cases and 9215 controls) subjects. We determined the fraction of SNPs displaying consistent directions of effect, assessed the significance of polygenic risk scores and estimated the genetic correlation of MDD across ancestries. Subsequent trans-ancestry meta-analyses combined SNP-level evidence of association. Sign tests and polygenic score profiling weakly support an overlap of SNP effects between East Asian and European populations. We estimated the trans-ancestry genetic correlation of lifetime MDD as 0.33; female-only and recurrent MDD yielded estimates of 0.40 and 0.41, respectively. Common variants downstream of GPHN achieved genome-wide significance by Bayesian trans-ancestry meta-analysis (rs9323497; log10 Bayes Factor=8.08) but failed to replicate in an independent European sample (P=0.911). Gene-set enrichment analyses indicate enrichment of genes involved in neuronal development and axonal trafficking. We successfully demonstrate a partially shared polygenic basis of MDD in East Asian and European populations. Taken together, these findings support a complex etiology for MDD and possible population differences in predisposing genetic factors, with important implications for future genetic studies.

Proliferation rates and gene expression profiles in human lymphoblastoid cell lines from patients with depression characterized in response to antidepressant drug therapy.

The current therapy success of depressive disorders remains in need of improvement due to low response rates and a delay in symptomatic improvement. Reliable functional biomarkers would be necessary to predict the individual treatment outcome. On the basis of the neurotrophic hypothesis of antidepressant's action, effects of antidepressant drugs on proliferation may serve as tentative individual markers for treatment efficacy. We studied individual differences in antidepressant drug effects on cell proliferation and gene expression in lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs) derived from patients treated for depression with documented clinical treatment outcome. Cell proliferation was characterized by EdU (5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine) incorporation assays following a 3-week incubation with therapeutic concentrations of fluoxetine. Genome-wide expression profiling was conducted by microarrays, and candidate genes such as betacellulin-a gene involved in neuronal stem cell regeneration-were validated by quantitative real-time PCR. Ex vivo assessment of proliferation revealed large differences in fluoxetine-induced proliferation inhibition between donor LCLs, but no association with clinical response was observed. Genome-wide expression analyses followed by pathway and gene ontology analyses identified genes with different expression before vs after 21-day incubation with fluoxetine. Significant correlations between proliferation and gene expression of WNT2B, FZD7, TCF7L2, SULT4A1 and ABCB1 (all involved in neurogenesis or brain protection) were also found. Basal gene expression of SULT4A1 (P=0.029), and gene expression fold changes of WNT2B by ex vivo fluoxetine (P=0.025) correlated with clinical response and clinical remission, respectively. Thus, we identified potential gene expression biomarkers eventually being useful as baseline predictors or as longitudinal targets in antidepressant therapy.

FKBP51 inhibits GSK3ß and augments the effects of distinct psychotropic medications.

Psychotropic medications target glycogen synthase kinase 3ß (GSK3ß), but the functional integration with other factors relevant for drug efficacy is poorly understood. We discovered that the suggested psychiatric risk factor FK506 binding protein 51 (FKBP51) increases phosphorylation of GSK3ß at serine 9 (pGSK3ß(S9)). FKBP51 associates with GSK3ß mainly through its FK1 domain; furthermore, it also changes GSK3ß's heterocomplex assembly by associating with the phosphatase PP2A and the kinase cyclin-dependent kinase 5. FKBP51 acts through GSK3ß on the downstream targets Tau, ß-catenin and T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancing factor (TCF/LEF). Lithium and the antidepressant (AD) paroxetine (PAR) functionally synergize with FKBP51, as revealed by reporter gene and protein association analyses. Deletion of FKBP51 blunted the PAR- or lithium-induced increase in pGSK3ß(S9) in cells and mice and attenuated the behavioral effects of lithium treatment. Clinical improvement in depressive patients was predicted by baseline GSK3ß pathway activity and by pGSK3ß(S9) reactivity to ex vivo treatment of peripheral blood mononuclear lymphocytes with lithium or PAR. In sum, FKBP51-directed GSK3ß activity contributes to the action of psychotropic medications. Components of the FKBP51-GSK3ß pathway may be useful as biomarkers predicting AD response and as targets for the development of novel ADs.

IgE responses to exogenous and endogenous allergens in atopic dermatitis patients under long-term systemic cyclosporine A treatment.

Atopic dermatitis (AD) patients mount IgE antibody responses to a variety of environmental allergens and also to autoantigens. We analyzed serum samples from four AD patients who had received oral cyclosporine A (CyA) treatment for up to 17 months regarding IgE autoreactivity to nitrocellulose-blotted human epithelial cell extracts and IgE levels to environmental allergens by quantitative ImmunoCap measurements. Skin inflammation was assessed by SCORAD. During full-dose treatment, a strong reduction in T-cell-mediated skin symptoms was observed which reappeared when CyA treatment was reduced or stopped. The intensity of IgE autoreactivity seemed to follow skin inflammation as it was reduced during full-dose treatment and increased upon inflammation. Interestingly, IgE levels to exogenous allergens were boosted by allergen exposure, declined thereafter, and seemed to be unaffected by CyA. Our data thus indicate that allergen-specific IgE production is boosted by allergen contact and cannot be reduced by CyA-mediated T-cell suppression.

Genome-wide analysis implicates microRNAs and their target genes in the development of bipolar disorder.

Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe and highly heritable neuropsychiatric disorder with a lifetime prevalence of 1%. Molecular genetic studies have identified the first BD susceptibility genes. However, the disease pathways remain largely unknown. Accumulating evidence suggests that microRNAs, a class of small noncoding RNAs, contribute to basic mechanisms underlying brain development and plasticity, suggesting their possible involvement in the pathogenesis of several psychiatric disorders, including BD. In the present study, gene-based analyses were performed for all known autosomal microRNAs using the largest genome-wide association data set of BD to date (9747 patients and 14 278 controls). Associated and brain-expressed microRNAs were then investigated in target gene and pathway analyses. Functional analyses of miR-499 and miR-708 were performed in rat hippocampal neurons. Ninety-eight of the six hundred nine investigated microRNAs showed nominally significant P-values, suggesting that BD-associated microRNAs might be enriched within known microRNA loci. After correction for multiple testing, nine microRNAs showed a significant association with BD. The most promising were miR-499, miR-708 and miR-1908. Target gene and pathway analyses revealed 18 significant canonical pathways, including brain development and neuron projection. For miR-499, four Bonferroni-corrected significant target genes were identified, including the genome-wide risk gene for psychiatric disorder CACNB2. First results of functional analyses in rat hippocampal neurons neither revealed nor excluded a major contribution of miR-499 or miR-708 to dendritic spine morphogenesis. The present results suggest that research is warranted to elucidate the precise involvement of microRNAs and their downstream pathways in BD.

The association between lower educational attainment and depression owing to shared genetic effects? Results in ~25,000 subjects.

An association between lower educational attainment (EA) and an increased risk for depression has been confirmed in various western countries. This study examines whether pleiotropic genetic effects contribute to this association. Therefore, data were analyzed from a total of 9662 major depressive disorder (MDD) cases and 14,949 controls (with no lifetime MDD diagnosis) from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium with additional Dutch and Estonian data. The association of EA and MDD was assessed with logistic regression in 15,138 individuals indicating a significantly negative association in our sample with an odds ratio for MDD 0.78 (0.75-0.82) per standard deviation increase in EA. With data of 884,105 autosomal common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), three methods were applied to test for pleiotropy between MDD and EA: (i) genetic profile risk scores (GPRS) derived from training data for EA (independent meta-analysis on ~120,000 subjects) and MDD (using a 10-fold leave-one-out procedure in the current sample), (ii) bivariate genomic-relationship-matrix restricted maximum likelihood (GREML) and (iii) SNP effect concordance analysis (SECA). With these methods, we found (i) that the EA-GPRS did not predict MDD status, and MDD-GPRS did not predict EA, (ii) a weak negative genetic correlation with bivariate GREML analyses, but this correlation was not consistently significant, (iii) no evidence for concordance of MDD and EA SNP effects with SECA analysis. To conclude, our study confirms an association of lower EA and MDD risk, but this association was not because of measurable pleiotropic genetic effects, which suggests that environmental factors could be involved, for example, socioeconomic status.

RNA expression profiling in depressed patients suggests retinoid-related orphan receptor alpha as a biomarker for antidepressant response.

Response to antidepressant treatment is highly variable with some patients responding within a few weeks, whereas others have to wait for months until the onset of clinical effects. Gene expression profiling may be a tool to identify markers of antidepressant treatment response and new potential drug targets. In a first step, we selected 12 male, age- and severity-matched pairs of remitters and nonresponders, and analyzed expression profiles in peripheral blood at admission and after 2 and 5 weeks of treatment using Illumina expression arrays. We identified 127 transcripts significantly associated with treatment response with a minimal P-value of 9.41 × 10(-)(4) (false discovery rate-corrected). Analysis of selected transcripts in an independent replication sample of 142 depressed inpatients confirmed that lower expression of retinoid-related orphan receptor alpha (RORa, P=6.23 × 10(-4)), germinal center expressed transcript 2 (GCET2, P=2.08 × 10(-2)) and chitinase 3-like protein 2 (CHI3L2, P=4.45 × 10(-2)) on admission were associated with beneficial treatment response. In addition, leukocyte-specific protein 1 (LSP1) significantly decreased after 5 weeks of treatment in responders (P=2.91 × 10(-2)). Additional genetic, in vivo stress responsitivity data and murine gene expression findings corroborate our finding of RORa as a transcriptional marker of antidepressant response. In summary, using a genome-wide transcriptomics approach and subsequent validation studies, we identified several transcripts including the circadian gene transcript RORa that may serve as biomarkers indicating antidepressant treatment response.

Plasma fibrinogen: now also an antidepressant response marker?

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is one of the leading causes of global disability. It is a risk factor for noncompliance with medical treatment, with about 40% of patients not responding to currently used antidepressant drugs. The identification and clinical implementation of biomarkers that can indicate the likelihood of treatment response are needed in order to predict which patients will benefit from an antidepressant drug. While analyzing the blood plasma proteome collected from MDD patients before the initiation of antidepressant medication, we observed different fibrinogen alpha (FGA) levels between drug responders and nonresponders. These results were replicated in a second set of patients. Our findings lend further support to a recently identified association between MDD and fibrinogen levels from a large-scale study.

Genetic variation in FKBP5 associated with the extent of stress hormone dysregulation in major depression.

The FK506 binding protein 51 or FKBP5 has been implicated in the regulation of glucocorticoid receptor (GR) sensitivity, and genetic variants in this gene have been associated with mood and anxiety disorders. GR resistance and associated stress hormone dysregulation are among the most robust biological findings in major depression, the extent of which may be moderated by FKBP5 polymorphisms. FKBP5 mRNA expression in peripheral blood cells (baseline and following in vivo GR stimulation with 1.5 mg dexamethasone p.o.) was analyzed together with plasma cortisol, ACTH, dexamethasone levels and the FKBP5 polymorphism rs1360780 in 68 depressed patients and 87 healthy controls. We observed a significant (P = 0.02) interaction between disease status and FKBP5 risk allele carrier status (minor allele T) on GR-stimulated FKBP5 mRNA expression. Patients carrying the risk T allele, but not the CC genotype, showed a reduced induction of FKBP5 mRNA. This FKBP5 polymorphism by disease status interaction was paralleled by the extent of plasma cortisol and ACTH suppression following dexamethasone administration, with a reduced suppression only observed in depressed patients carrying the T allele. Only depressed patients carrying the FKBP5 rs1360780 risk allele showed significant GR resistance compared with healthy controls, as measured by dexamethasone-induced FKBP5 mRNA induction in peripheral blood cells and suppression of plasma cortisol and ACTH concentrations. This finding suggests that endocrine alterations in depressed patients are determined by genetic variants and may allow identification of specific subgroups.

Estimating the heritability of reporting stressful life events captured by common genetic variants.

BACKGROUND: Although usually thought of as external environmental stressors, a significant heritable component has been reported for measures of stressful life events (SLEs) in twin studies. Method We examined the variance in SLEs captured by common genetic variants from a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 2578 individuals. Genome-wide complex trait analysis (GCTA) was used to estimate the phenotypic variance tagged by single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We also performed a GWAS on the number of SLEs, and looked at correlations between siblings. RESULTS: A significant proportion of variance in SLEs was captured by SNPs (30%, p = 0.04). When events were divided into those considered to be dependent or independent, an equal amount of variance was explained for both. This 'heritability' was in part confounded by personality measures of neuroticism and psychoticism. A GWAS for the total number of SLEs revealed one SNP that reached genome-wide significance (p = 4 × 10-8), although this association was not replicated in separate samples. Using available sibling data for 744 individuals, we also found a significant positive correlation of R 2 = 0.08 in SLEs (p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: These results provide independent validation from molecular data for the heritability of reporting environmental measures, and show that this heritability is in part due to both common variants and the confounding effect of personality.

Convergent animal and human evidence suggests the activin/inhibin pathway to be involved in antidepressant response.

Despite the overt need for improved treatment modalities in depression, efforts to develop conceptually novel antidepressants have been relatively unsuccessful so far. Here we present a translational approach combining results from hypothesis-free animal experiments with data from a genetic association study in depression. Comparing genes regulated by chronic paroxetine treatment in the mouse hippocampus with genes showing nominally significant association with antidepressant treatment response in two pharmacogenetic studies, the activin pathway was the only one to show this dual pattern of association and therefore selected as a candidate. We examined the regulation of activin A and activin receptor type IA mRNA following antidepressant treatment. We investigated the effects of stereotaxic infusion of activin into the hippocampus and the amygdala in a behavioural model of depression. To analyse whether variants in genes in the activin signalling pathway predict antidepressant treatment response, we performed a human genetic association study. Significant changes in the expression of genes in the activin signalling pathway were observed following 1 and 4 weeks of treatment. Injection of activin A into the hippocampus exerts acute antidepressant-like effects. Polymorphisms in the betaglycan gene, a co-receptor mediating functional antagonism of activin signalling, significantly predict treatment outcome in our system-wide pharmacogenetics study in depression. We provide convergent evidence from mouse and human data that genes in the activin signalling pathway are promising novel candidates involved in the neurobiogical mechanisms underlying antidepressant mechanisms of action. Further, our data suggest this pathway to be a target for more rapid-acting antidepressants in the future.

Gene-PUFA interactions and obesity risk.

Although there are indications for modulatory effects of PUFA on associations between SNP and obesity risk, scientific evidence in human subjects is still scarce. The present analyses investigated interaction effects between SNP in candidate genes for obesity and PUFA in erythrocyte membranes on obesity risk. Within the second Bavarian Food Consumption Survey (cross-sectional, population-based), 568 adults provided blood samples. Fatty acid composition of erythrocyte membranes was analysed by means of GC. Genotyping was performed for twenty-one genes, including cytokines, adipokines, neurotransmitters and transcription factors. In addition, plasma IL-6 concentrations were analysed. For the statistical analysis, a logistic regression model assuming additive genetic effects was chosen. About 20 % of the study participants were classified as obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m(2)). Several significant gene-PUFA interactions were found, indicating regulatory effects of PUFA by gene variants of IL-2, IL-6, IL-18, TNF receptor family member 1B and 21, leptin receptor and adiponectin on obesity risk. After stratification by genotype, the strongest effects were found for rs2069779 (IL-2) and all tested PUFA as well as for rs1800795 (IL-6) and linoleic or arachidonic acid. The obesity risk of minor allele carriers significantly decreased with increasing fatty acid content. The genetic PUFA-IL-6 interaction was also reflected in plasma IL-6 concentrations. If replicated in a prospective study with sufficient statistical power, the results would indicate a beneficial effect of high PUFA supply for a substantial proportion of the population with respect to obesity risk.

TMEM132D, a new candidate for anxiety phenotypes: evidence from human and mouse studies.

The lifetime prevalence of panic disorder (PD) is up to 4% worldwide and there is substantial evidence that genetic factors contribute to the development of PD. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in TMEM132D, identified in a whole-genome association study (GWAS), were found to be associated with PD in three independent samples, with a two-SNP haplotype associated in each of three samples in the same direction, and with a P-value of 1.2e-7 in the combined sample (909 cases and 915 controls). Independent SNPs in this gene were also associated with the severity of anxiety symptoms in patients affected by PD or panic attacks as well as in patients suffering from unipolar depression. Risk genotypes for PD were associated with higher TMEM132D mRNA expression levels in the frontal cortex. In parallel, using a mouse model of extremes in trait anxiety, we could further show that anxiety-related behavior was positively correlated with Tmem132d mRNA expression in the anterior cingulate cortex, central to the processing of anxiety/fear-related stimuli, and that in this animal model a Tmem132d SNP is associated with anxiety-related behavior in an F2 panel. TMEM132D may thus be an important new candidate gene for PD as well as more generally for anxiety-related behavior.

Genome-wide association study of recurrent major depressive disorder in two European case-control cohorts.

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a highly prevalent disorder with substantial heritability. Heritability has been shown to be substantial and higher in the variant of MDD characterized by recurrent episodes of depression. Genetic studies have thus far failed to identify clear and consistent evidence of genetic risk factors for MDD. We conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) in two independent datasets. The first GWAS was performed on 1022 recurrent MDD patients and 1000 controls genotyped on the Illumina 550 platform. The second was conducted on 492 recurrent MDD patients and 1052 controls selected from a population-based collection, genotyped on the Affymetrix 5.0 platform. Neither GWAS identified any SNP that achieved GWAS significance. We obtained imputed genotypes at the Illumina loci for the individuals genotyped on the Affymetrix platform, and performed a meta-analysis of the two GWASs for this common set of approximately half a million SNPs. The meta-analysis did not yield genome-wide significant results either. The results from our study suggest that SNPs with substantial odds ratio are unlikely to exist for MDD, at least in our datasets and among the relatively common SNPs genotyped or tagged by the half-million-loci arrays. Meta-analysis of larger datasets is warranted to identify SNPs with smaller effects or with rarer allele frequencies that contribute to the risk of MDD.

Variations in tryptophan hydroxylase 2 linked to decreased serotonergic activity are associated with elevated risk for metabolic syndrome in depression.

Major depression and the metabolic syndrome (MetS) are interacting clinical conditions influenced by genetic susceptibility. For both disorders, impaired serotonergic neurotransmission in specific brain areas has been suggested. This led us to investigate whether variants in the gene coding for tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (TPH2), the brain-specific and rate-limiting enzyme for serotonin biosynthesis, might be predictive for an increased liability for the development of MetS in depressed patients. In a case-control study consisting of 988 patients with recurrent unipolar depression (RUD) and 1023 psychiatric healthy controls, MetS components were ascertained according to the International Diabetes Foundation criteria. A total of 41 single nucleotide polymorphisms fully covering the TPH2 gene region were genotyped in stage 1 (300 patients/300 controls), resulting in significant genetic associations of polymorphisms located in exon 7 and intron 8 of TPH2 and the occurrence of MetS in depressed patients after correction for age, gender and multiple testing (51 RUD-MetS/179 RUD-non-MetS). We were able to confirm the significant association of rs17110690 in stage 2 (688 patients/723 controls; 110 RUD-MetS/549 RUD-non-MetS) and to link risk-genotypes and risk-haplotypes for MetS to lower TPH2 mRNA expression and to lower 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid levels in cerebrospinal fluid previously reported in functional studies. Our findings suggest that TPH2 polymorphisms characterize a subgroup of depressed patients who are especially prone to develop metabolic disorders induced by a genotype-dependent impairment of serotonergic neurotransmission. Identifying depressed patients at high risk for MetS using genetic variants could have direct clinical impact on individualized disease management and prevention strategies.

Investigation of 17 candidate genes for personality traits confirms effects of the HTR2A gene on novelty seeking.

Genes involved in serotonergic and dopaminergic neurotransmission have been hypothesized to affect different aspects of personality, but findings from genetic association studies did not provide conclusive results so far. In previous studies, however, only one or a few polymorphisms within single genes were investigated neglecting the possibility that the genetic associations might be more complex comprising several genes or gene regions. To overcome this limitation, we performed an extended genetic association study analyzing 17 serotonergic (SLC6A4, HTR1A, HTR1B, HTR2A, HTR2C, HTR3A, HTR6, MAOA, TPH1, TPH2) and dopaminergic genes (SLC6A3, DRD2, DRD3, DRD4, COMT, MAOA, TH, DBH), which have been previously reported to be implicated with personality traits. One hundred and ninety-five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within these genes were genotyped with the Illumina BeadChip technology (HumanHap300, Human-1) in a sample of 366 mentally healthy Caucasians. Additionally, we tried to replicate our results in an independent sample of further 335 Caucasians. Personality traits in both samples were assessed with the German version of Cloninger's Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire. From 30 SNPs showing associations at a nominal level of significance, two intronic SNPs, rs2770296 and rs927544, both located in the HTR2A gene, withstood correction for multiple testing. These SNPs were associated with the personality trait novelty seeking. The effect of rs927544 could be replicated for the novelty seeking subscale extravagance, and the same SNP was also associated with extravagance in the combined samples. Our results show that HTR2A polymorphisms modulate facets of novelty seeking behaviour in healthy adults suggesting that serotonergic neurotransmission is involved in this phenotype.

Cognitive impairment in unipolar depression is persistent and non-specific: further evidence for the final common pathway disorder hypothesis.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive performance is often impaired in depression, and these impairments can persist even after remission from psychopathological symptoms. However, it is still unclear whether cognitive dysfunction is associated with psychopathological symptoms or represents a genuine disorder. This study examined cognitive performance in acute depression, after remission, and 6 months after remission in order to determine the nature and specificity of cognitive dysfunction as well as its relevance for the further course of depression. METHOD: Assessments of cognitive function and psychopathology were carried out on admission and prior to discharge in 53 in-patients with unipolar depression. Twenty patients were retested 6 months after discharge. To correct for practice effects, 13 healthy subjects were included and assessed twice with the same cognitive tests. RESULTS: In acute depression, we found impairments of information processing/attention, memory, and executive functions. Cognitive impairments remained in a high proportion of patients, even after remission of psychopathological symptoms. After correcting for practice effects, a significant improvement was observed only for some tests of executive functioning. Severity of depression was only weakly correlated with one single cognitive measure, indicating that psychopathological and neuropsychological symptoms are dissociable. Furthermore, we found no evidence for specific cognitive dysfunction. CONCLUSIONS: Our results support the hypothesis that cognitive impairments in depression are neither selective nor specific; they have trait-like features and are, therefore, not merely an epiphenomenon of depression. Whether or not cognitive dysfunction is a prognostic marker for the course of depression remains still an open issue.

The GABA transporter 1 (SLC6A1): a novel candidate gene for anxiety disorders.

Recent evidence suggests that the GABA transporter 1 (GAT-1; SLC6A1) plays a role in the pathophysiology and treatment of anxiety disorders. In order to understand the impact of genetic variation within SLC6A1 on pathological anxiety, we performed a case-control association study with anxiety disorder patients with and without syndromal panic attacks. Using the method of sequential addition of cases, we found that polymorphisms in the 5' flanking region of SLC6A1 are highly associated with anxiety disorders when considering the severity of syndromal panic attacks as phenotype covariate. Analysing the effect size of the association, we observed a constant increase in the odds ratio for disease susceptibility with an increase in panic severity (OR approximately 2.5 in severely affected patients). Nominally significant association effects were observed considering the entire patient sample. These data indicate a high load of genetic variance within SLC6A1 on pathological anxiety and highlight GAT-1 as a promising target for treatment of anxiety disorders with panic symptoms.