Gene regulatory network analysis identifies MYL1, MDH2, GLS, and TRIM28 as the principal proteins in the response of mesenchymal stem cells to Mg2+ ions.

Magnesium (Mg)-based implants have emerged as a promising alternative for orthopedic applications, owing to their bioactive properties and biodegradability. As the implants degrade, Mg2+ ions are released, influencing all surrounding cell types, especially mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). MSCs are vital for bone tissue regeneration, therefore, it is essential to understand their molecular response to Mg2+ ions in order to maximize the potential of Mg-based biomaterials. In this study, we conducted a gene regulatory network (GRN) analysis to examine the molecular responses of MSCs to Mg2+ ions. We used time-series proteomics data collected at 11 time points across a 21-day period for the GRN construction. We studied the impact of Mg2+ ions on the resulting networks and identified the key proteins and protein interactions affected by the application of Mg2+ ions. Our analysis highlights MYL1, MDH2, GLS, and TRIM28 as the primary targets of Mg2+ ions in the response of MSCs during 1-21 days phase. Our results also identify MDH2-MYL1, MDH2-RPS26, TRIM28-AK1, TRIM28-SOD2, and GLS-AK1 as the critical protein relationships affected by Mg2+ ions. By offering a comprehensive understanding of the regulatory role of Mg2+ ions on MSCs, our study contributes valuable insights into the molecular response of MSCs to Mg-based materials, thereby facilitating the development of innovative therapeutic strategies for orthopedic applications.

Characterization and In Vitro Behavior of PEO Coated Mg Modified with Antibacterial Ag(I) and Cu(II) Complexes.

The use of Mg-based biomaterials with a number of their advantageous properties are overshadowed by uncontrollable metal corrosion. Moreover, the use of implants goes alongside with the threat of pathogens-associated complications. In this study, PEO coated Mg biomaterial loaded with antibacterial Ag(I) and Cu(II) complexes is produced and tested to meet both appropriate protective characteristics as well as sufficient level of antibacterial activity. To achieve a suitable level of anticorrosion protection phosphate and fluoride-phosphate electrolytes are used in the PEO process. Investigation of the surface thickness and morphology done by means of cross-section analysis and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), as well as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) assay show precedence of the fluoride containing PEO coating and make it the material of choice for further modification with Ag(I) and Cu(II) complexes. The presence of the complexes on the PEO surface is confirmed by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GDOES) are used to estimate the complexes' chemical state and depth of penetration in the coating surface. Based on the results of antibacterial assay, the modified coatings are found to be active against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.

In vitro and in vivo degradation behavior of Mg-0.45Zn-0.45Ca (ZX00) screws for orthopedic applications.

Magnesium (Mg) alloys have become a potential material for orthopedic implants due to their unnecessary implant removal, biocompatibility, and mechanical integrity until fracture healing. This study examined the in vitro and in vivo degradation of an Mg fixation screw composed of Mg-0.45Zn-0.45Ca (ZX00, in wt.%). With ZX00 human-sized implants, in vitro immersion tests up to 28 days under physiological conditions, along with electrochemical measurements were performed for the first time. In addition, ZX00 screws were implanted in the diaphysis of sheep for 6, 12, and 24 weeks to assess the degradation and biocompatibility of the screws in vivo. Using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), micro-computed tomography (µCT), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and histology, the surface and cross-sectional morphologies of the corrosion layers formed, as well as the bone-corrosion-layer-implant interfaces, were analyzed. Our findings from in vivo testing demonstrated that ZX00 alloy promotes bone healing and the formation of new bone in direct contact with the corrosion products. In addition, the same elemental composition of corrosion products was observed for in vitro and in vivo experiments; however, their elemental distribution and thicknesses differ depending on the implant location. Our findings suggest that the corrosion resistance was microstructure-dependent. The head zone was the least corrosion-resistant, indicating that the production procedure could impact the corrosion performance of the implant. In spite of this, the formation of new bone and no adverse effects on the surrounding tissues demonstrated that the ZX00 is a suitable Mg-based alloy for temporary bone implants.

Mg-based materials diminish tumor spreading and cancer metastases.

Cancer metastases are the most common causes of cancer-related deaths. The formation of secondary tumors at different sites in the human body can impair multiple organ function and dramatically decrease the survival of the patients. In this stage, it is difficulty to treat tumor growth and spreading due to arising therapy resistances. Therefore, it is important to prevent cancer metastases and to increase subsequent cancer therapy success. Cancer metastases are conventionally treated with radiation or chemotherapy. However, these treatments elicit lots of side effects, wherefore novel local treatment approaches are currently discussed. Recent studies already showed anticancer activity of specially designed degradable magnesium (Mg) alloys by reducing the cancer cell proliferation. In this work, we investigated the impact of these Mg-based materials on different steps of the metastatic cascade including cancer cell migration, invasion, and cancer-induced angiogenesis. Both, Mg and Mg-6Ag reduced cell migration and invasion of osteosarcoma cells in coculture with fibroblasts. Furthermore, the Mg-based materials used in this study diminished the cancer-induced angiogenesis. Endothelial cells incubated with conditioned media obtained from these Mg and Mg-6Ag showed a reduced cell layer permeability, a reduced proliferation and inhibited cell migration. The tube formation as a last step of angiogenesis was stimulated with the presence of Mg under normoxia and diminished under hypoxia.

Slow degrading Mg-based materials induce tumor cell dormancy on an osteosarcoma-fibroblast coculture model.

Osteosarcoma is one of the most common cancers in young adults and is commonly treated using surgery and chemotherapy. During the past years, these therapy approaches improved but failed to ameliorate the outcomes. Therefore, novel, targeted therapeutic approaches should be established to enhance treatment success while preserving patient's quality of life. Recent studies suggest the application of degradable magnesium (Mg) alloys as orthopedic implants bearing a potential antitumor activity. Here, we examined the influence of Mg-based materials on an osteosarcoma-fibroblast coculture. Both, Mg and Mg-6Ag did not lead to tumor cell apoptosis at low degradation rates. Instead, the Mg-based materials induced cellular dormancy in the cancer cells indicated by a lower number of Ki-67 positive cancer cells and a higher p38 expression. This dormancy-like state could be reversed by reseeding on non-degrading glass slides but could not be provoked by inhibition of the protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase. By investigating the influence of the disjunct surface-near effects of the Mg degradation on cell proliferation, an increased pH was found to be a main initiator of Mg degradation-dependent tumor cell proliferation inhibition.

Dynamic in vivo monitoring of fracture healing process in response to magnesium implant with multimodal imaging: pilot longitudinal study in a rat external fixation model.

Rodent models are commonly used in pre-clinical research of magnesium (Mg)-based and other types of biomaterials for fracture treatment. Most studies selected unstable fixation methods, and there is a lack of multimodal longitudinal in vivo monitoring of bone healing. The purpose of this study is to develop a rat femoral fracture model stabilized by external fixation with intra-medullary Mg implant, and to investigate the dynamic bone union process with several imaging techniques offering complementing insights into the process. Pure Mg pins were prepared, followed by an in vitro degradation test. Male Sprague-Dawley rats in the experimental group underwent femoral osteotomy stabilized by external fixators with intra-medullary implantation of Mg pins, and the control group underwent external fixation without intra-medullary implants. Post-operative radiograph, micro-CT and B-mode ultrasonography were acquired directly after surgery, and re-examined at week 4, 8 and 12. Bone tissue volume, in vivo implant degradation, histological staining and MRI images were analyzed using ex vivo samples. Both groups achieved fracture union at week 12, and the dynamic healing process was illustrated by in vivo radiograph, micro-CT and ultrasonography. Bilateral whole femur ex vivo analysis further demonstrated increased ratio of bone tissue volume in the surgical femur with Mg implants, and in vivo degradation of Mg pins was slower than in vitro results. Titanium screws rather than intra-medullary Mg pins were the source of artifact in MRI. This pilot study showed the rat fracture model with external fixation and intra-medullary Mg implantation to be an effective method for dynamic in vivo monitoring of the bone healing process. Future application of the animal model may facilitate pre-clinical translational research of biodegradable orthopaedic implant materials for fracture treatment.

Controlled release of hydrogen by implantation of magnesium induces P53-mediated tumor cells apoptosis.

Hydrogen has been used to suppress tumor growth with considerable efficacy. Inhalation of hydrogen gas and oral ingestion of hydrogen-rich saline are two common systemic routes of hydrogen administration. We have developed a topical delivery method of hydrogen at targeted sites through the degradation of magnesium-based biomaterials. However, the underlying mechanism of hydrogen's role in cancer treatment remains ambiguous. Here, we investigate the mechanism of tumor cell apoptosis triggered by the hydrogen released from magnesium-based biomaterials. We find that the localized release of hydrogen increases the expression level of P53 tumor suppressor proteins, as demonstrated by the in vitro RNA sequencing and protein expression analysis. Then, the P53 proteins disrupt the membrane potential of mitochondria, activate autophagy, suppress the reactive oxygen species in cancer cells, and finally result in tumor suppression. The anti-tumor efficacy of magnesium-based biomaterials is further validated in vivo by inserting magnesium wire into the subcutaneous tumor in a mouse. We also discovered that the minimal hydrogen concentration from magnesium wires to trigger substantial tumor apoptosis is 91.2 µL/mm3 per day, which is much lower than that required for hydrogen inhalation. Taken together, these findings reveal the release of H2 from magnesium-based biomaterial exerts its anti-tumoral activity by activating the P53-mediated lysosome-mitochondria apoptosis signaling pathway, which strengthens the therapeutic potential of this biomaterial as localized anti-tumor treatment.

In Vitro Investigation on Degradable Mg-Based Biomaterial under the Impact of the Serum Glycoprotein Fetuin.

Biomedical applications of magnesium (Mg) and its alloys are generally dependent on their degradation behavior in vivo. Despite its attractive properties, which make Mg suitable for orthopedic applications, the in vivo material-tissue (bone, blood, and lymph tissues) interaction is not yet fully understood. To investigate the influence of major serum proteins on the degradation, this study focused on fetuin, which is one of the major non-collagenous plasma proteins and which is essential for biomineralization. This study used a physiological setup to investigate the influence of fetuin on the degradation behavior of pure Mg in the presence of calcium (Ca). Extruded pure Mg samples were immersed under cell culture conditions in Hank's balanced salt solution (HBSS) under defined Ca regimes. The results showed a significant decrease in the degradation rate (DR) when both fetuin and Ca were present in an immersion medium as compared to media where they were not simultaneously present. A possible reason for this behavior was the forming of a dense, protein-degradation products protection barrier at the material surface. Furthermore, the limitation of freely available Ca might be a reason for a decreased degradation. The cultivation of primary osteoblasts (pOB) was possible at the fetuin-coated Mg-surface without additional serum supplementation.

Magnesium ions regulate mesenchymal stem cells population and osteogenic differentiation: A fuzzy agent-based modeling approach.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are proliferative and multipotent cells that play a key role in the bone regeneration process. Empirical data have repeatedly shown the bioregulatory importance of magnesium (Mg) ions in MSC growth and osteogenesis. In this study, we propose an agent-based model to predict the spatiotemporal dynamics of the MSC population and osteogenic differentiation in response to Mg2+ ions. A fuzzy-logic controller was designed to govern the decision-making process of cells by predicting four cellular processes of proliferation, differentiation, migration, and mortality in response to several important bioregulatory factors such as Mg2+ ions, pH, BMP2, and TGF-ß1. The model was calibrated using the empirical data obtained from three sets of cell culture experiments. The model successfully reproduced the empirical observations regarding live cell count, viability, DNA content, and the differentiation-related markers of alkaline phosphate (ALP) and osteocalcin (OC). The simulation results, in agreement with the empirical data, showed that Mg2+ ions within 3-6 mM concentration have the highest stimulation effect on cell population growth. The model also correctly reproduced the stimulatory effect of Mg2+ ions on ALP and its inhibitory effect on OC as the early and late differentiation markers, respectively. Besides, the numerical simulation shed light on the innate cellular differences of the cells cultured in different experiments in terms of the proliferative capacity as well as sensitivity to Mg2+ ions. The proposed model can be adopted in the study of the osteogenesis around Mg-based implants where ions released due to degradation interact with local cells and regulate bone regeneration.

Tissue responses after implantation of biodegradable Mg alloys evaluated by multimodality 3D micro-bioimaging in vivo.

The local response of tissue triggered by implantation of degradable magnesium-based implant materials was investigated in vivo in a murine model. Pins (5.0 mm length by 0.5 mm diameter) made of Mg, Mg-10Gd, and Ti were implanted in the leg muscle tissue of C57Bl/6N mice (n = 6). Implantation was generally well tolerated as documented by only a mild short term increase in a multidimensional scoring index. Lack of difference between the groups indicated that the response was systemic and surgery related rather than material dependent. Longitudinal in vivo monitoring utilizing micro-computed tomography over 42 days demonstrated the highest and most heterogeneous degradation for Mg-10Gd. Elemental imaging of the explants by micro X-ray fluorescence spectrometry showed a dense calcium-phosphate-containing degradation layer. In order to monitor resulting surgery induced and/or implant material associated local cell stress, sphingomyelin based liposomes containing indocyanine green were administered. An initial increase in fluorescent signals (3-7 days after implantation) indicating cell stress at the site of the implantation was measured by in vivo fluorescent molecular tomography. The signal decreased until the 42nd day for all materials. These findings demonstrate that Mg based implants are well tolerated causing only mild and short term adverse reactions.

Macrophage-derived oncostatin M/bone morphogenetic protein 6 in response to Mg-based materials influences pro-osteogenic activity of human umbilical cord perivascular cells.

Macrophages are the central immune cell involved in the foreign body reaction to the implants. Furthermore, the magnesium-based materials could modulate macrophage functions, and subsequently influence bone formation via not clearly understood mechanisms. To analysis the roles of materials (magnesium and its gadolinium-based alloy; Mg and Mg-10Gd) on secretion of macrophages and their effects on pro-osteogenic activity, human mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and macrophages were cocultured directly on the materials surface. Here, oncostatin M (OSM) - glycoprotein 130 (gp130) signaling complex as well as BMP6/SMAD were found to be involved in the Mg and Mg-10Gd multifactorial modulating osteogenic differentiation. Furthermore, materials upregulated the gene expression of bone morphogenetic protein 6 (BMP6) in macrophages, as well as its protein receptors and mothers against decapentaplegic homolog (SMAD) 1/4/5 in cocultured MSC. Besides, both materials could reduce the secretion of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) and interleukin 1 beta (IL1ß) in macrophages and cocultures. These results collectively imply that Mg and Mg-10Gd could create a beneficial microenvironment for osteogenic differentiation and further support Mg-based biomaterial immunomodulatory properties by modulating the interactions of macrophages and MSC for bone regeneration. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Mg-activated macrophages could regulate the pro-osteogenic activity via OSM/gp130 and Smad-related signalling. The neutralisation assay was utilised to confirm the hypothesis of inductive osteoblastic differentiation of human MSC via OSM/gp130 signalling. Current study are essential to evidence that the coordinated communication between macrophages and MSC (OSM/gp130/BMP6/TNFα/IL1ß), which could be utilised for improving magnesium-based bone biomaterials and therapeutic applications.

Mesenchymal Stem Cell and Oxygen Modulate the Cocultured Endothelial Cells in the Presence of Magnesium Degradation Products.

The interaction between mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and endothelial cells (ECs) holds a promising potential for the revascularization of osteoconductive grafts in orthopedics regeneration. Magnesium (Mg), as a well-studied degradable biomaterial already used in current medical practice, possesses osteoinductive properties. We investigated whether the physiochemical microenvironment, that is, the Mg and oxygen contents, further influences the MSC-modulating EC activities. Hypoxia, normoxia, and Mg degradation were represented by 5 and 20% O2 and gradient Mg degradation products, respectively. The migration of ECs in both EC mono- and MSC-EC coculture was increased in Mg with normoxia. Tube formation of ECs was reduced by Mg, especially in coculture and under normoxia. Compared to the monoculture, MSC-EC coculture exhibited significantly decreased content of proangiogenic cytokines but an increased amount of chemotactic factors. Semiquantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction revealed significant different profiles of the gene regulation under hypoxia, normoxia, different cell populations, and cell status. Investigation of heterotypic MSC-EC interactions in a mixed coculture system exhibited significantly increased proliferation under hypoxia. Transdifferentiation between MSCs and ECs was found to be reciprocally regulated by Mg degradation products in the two different oxygen conditions, probably because of the variable regulating effects of Mg on hypoxia-inducible factors. These results indicated the modulatory roles of oxygen tension and MSCs in combination with Mg or Mg-based degradable materials.

Microstructure and Corrosion Characterization of a MgO/Hydroxyapatite Bilayer Coating by Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation Coupled with Flame Spraying on a Mg Alloy.

Thermally sprayed hydroxyapatite coatings are one of the main strategies to improve the bioactivation of metal implants. However, the naturally low corrosion resistance of these coatings is the main challenge for their use. In this study, plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) was used to create an intermediate layer. The anodization process was used for comparison. According to the polarization curves, the PEO layer was more effective than the anodized layer in reducing the corrosion current density (I corr of 0.05 × 10-9 A/cm2 vs I corr of 0.05 A/cm2). The results of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy showed higher resistance of the sample with a PEO interlayer than that of the sample with an anodized interlayer. The results of the hydrogen evolution test revealed that the PEO layer as a middle layer served as the main barrier for reducing the magnesium corrosion rate, especially during the initial immersion time.

The impact of brain cell metabolism and extracellular matrix on magnesium degradation.

Due to its degradability, magnesium holds potential for the application as a base material for local treatment systems. Particularly for the therapy of severe brain-related diseases, local approaches are advantageous. To confirm the suitability of magnesium as a material for neural implants, information on the interaction of brain cells with magnesium is essential. Initial steps of such an evaluation need to include not only cytocompatibility tests but also the analysis of the in vitro material degradation to predict in vivo material performance. Considering the sensitivity and functional importance of neural tissue, an in-depth understanding of the processes involved is of particular relevance. Here, we investigate the influence of four different brain cell types and fibroblasts on magnesium degradation in direct material contact. Our findings indicate cell type as well as cell density-dependent degradation behavior. Metabolic activity (lactate content) appears to be crucial for degradation promotion. Extracellular matrix composition, distribution, and matrix/cell ratios are analyzed to elucidate the cell-material interactions further. Statement of Significance Thanks to their degradability, magnesium (Mg)-based materials could be promising biomaterials for local ion or even drug delivery strategies for the treatment of severe brain-related diseases. To confirm the suitability of Mg as a neural implant material, information on the interaction of brain cells with Mg is essential. Initial steps of such an evaluation need to include cytocompatibility tests and the analysis of the in vitro material degradation to predict in vivo material performance. The present study provides data on the influence of different brain cell types on Mg degradation in direct material contact. Our findings indicate cell type and cell density-dependent degradation behavior, and elucidate the role of cell metabolites and extracellular matrix molecules in the underlying degradation mechanisms.

Effects of degradable magnesium on paracrine signaling between human umbilical cord perivascular cells and peripheral blood mononuclear cells.

Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) interact with numerous immune cells that can promote regenerative processes and inhibit inflammatory responses. We hypothesised that the cross-talk between human umbilical cord perivascular cells (HUCPV; an alternative source of MSC) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) could be influenced by degradable transwell magnesium (Mg). To study the correlations between paracrine signaling and specific cellular behaviour during the host response to Mg, we used a transwell coculture system for up to 7 days. The proliferation and viability of both cell types were not significantly influenced by Mg. When HUCPV were cultured with degradable Mg, a moderate inflammation (e.g., lower secretions of pro-inflammatory interleukin 1 beta and IL2, and tumour necrosis factor alpha, interferon gamma, anti-inflammatory interleukins 4, 5, 10, 13, and 1 receptor antagonists and granulocyte colony stimulating factor), and an increased pro-healing M2 macrophage phenotype were observed. Moreover, when PBMC were cultured with degradable Mg, the expression of migration/wound healing related cytokines (interleukin 8, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 and macrophage inflammatory protein 1α/ß) was upregulated, accompanied by an increase in the migration ability of HUCPV (cell scratch assay). In addition, an increased pro-osteogenic potential was demonstrated via an increase of osteoblastic markers (e.g., alkaline phosphatase activity, specific gene expression and cytokine release). These results collectively imply that Mg possesses osteo-immunomodulatory properties. They also help to design Mg-based bone substitute biomaterials capable of exhibiting desired immune reactions and good clinical performance.

Fibrinogen and magnesium combination biomaterials modulate macrophage phenotype, NF-kB signaling and crosstalk with mesenchymal stem/stromal cells.

Macrophage behavior upon biomaterial implantation conditions the inflammatory response and subsequent tissue repair. The hypothesis behind this work was that fibrinogen (Fg) and magnesium (Mg) biomaterials, used in combination (FgMg) could act synergistically to modulate macrophage activation, promoting a pro-regenerative phenotype. Materials were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, Fg and Mg degradation products were quantified by atomic absorption spectroscopy and ELISA. Whole blood immune cells and primary human monocyte-derived macrophages were exposed to the biomaterials extracts in unstimulated (M0) or pro-inflammatory LPS or LPS-IFNγ (M1) conditions. Macrophage phenotype was evaluated by flow cytometry, cytokines secreted by whole blood cells and macrophages were measured by ELISA, and signaling pathways were probed by Western blotting. The secretomes of macrophages preconditioned with biomaterials extracts were incubated with human mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSC) and their effect on osteogenic differentiation was evaluated via Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) activity and alizarin red staining. Scaffolds of Fg, alone or in the FgMg combination, presented similar 3D porous architectures. Extracts from FgMg materials reduced LPS-induced TNF-α secretion by innate immune cells, and macrophage M1 polarization upon LPS-IFNγ stimulation, resulting in lower cell surface CD86 expression, lower NFκB p65 phosphorylation and reduced TNF-α secretion. Moreover, while biomaterial extracts per se did not enhance MSC osteogenic differentiation, macrophage secretome, particularly from cells exposed to FgMg extracts, increased MSC ALP activity and alizarin red staining, compared with extracts alone. These findings suggest that the combination of Fg and Mg synergistically influences macrophage pro-inflammatory activation and crosstalk with MSC. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Modulating macrophage phenotype by degradable and bioactive biomaterials is an increasingly explored strategy to promote tissue repair/regeneration. Fibrinogen (Fg) and magnesium (Mg)-based materials have been explored in this context. Previous work from our group showed that monocytes interact with fibrinogen adsorbed onto chitosan surfaces through TLR4 and that fibrinogen scaffolds promote in vivo bone regeneration. Also, magnesium ions have been reported to modulate macrophage pro-inflammatory M1 stimulation and to promote bone repair. Here we report, for the first time, the combination of Fg and Mg materials, hypothesizing that it could act synergistically on macrophages, directing them towards a pro-regenerative phenotype. As a first step towards proving/disproving our hypothesis we used extracts obtained from Fg, Mg and FgMg multilayer constructs. We observed that FgMg extracts led to a reduction in the polarization of macrophages towards a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Also, the secretome of macrophages exposed to extracts of the combination material promoted the expression of osteogenic markers by MSCs.

Optimizing an Osteosarcoma-Fibroblast Coculture Model to Study Antitumoral Activity of Magnesium-Based Biomaterials.

Osteosarcoma is among the most common cancers in young patients and is responsible for one-tenth of all cancer-related deaths in children. Surgery often leads to bone defects in excised tissue, while residual cancer cells may remain. Degradable magnesium alloys get increasing attention as orthopedic implants, and some studies have reported potential antitumor activity. However, most of the studies do not take the complex interaction between malignant cells and their surrounding stroma into account. Here, we applied a coculture model consisting of green fluorescent osteosarcoma cells and red fluorescent fibroblasts on extruded Mg and Mg-6Ag with a tailored degradation rate. In contrast to non-degrading Ti-based material, both Mg-based materials reduced relative tumor cell numbers. Comparing the influence of the material on a sparse and dense coculture, relative cell numbers were found to be statistically different, thus relevant, while magnesium alloy degradations were observed as cell density-independent. We concluded that the sparse coculture model is a suitable mechanistic system to further study the antitumor effects of Mg-based material.

Alloying and Processing Effects on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Degradation Behavior of Extruded Magnesium Alloys Containing Calcium, Cerium, or Silver.

Magnesium alloys attract attention as degradable implant materials due to their adjustable corrosion properties and biocompatibility. In the last few decades, especially wrought magnesium alloys with enhanced mechanical properties have been developed, with the main aim of increasing ductility and formability. Alloying and processing studies allowed demonstrating the relationship between the processing and the microstructure development for many new magnesium alloys. Based on this experience, magnesium alloy compositions need adjustment to elements improving mechanical properties while being suitable for biomaterial applications. In this work, magnesium alloys from two Mg-Zn series with Ce (ZE) or Ca (ZX) as additional elements and a series of alloys with Ag and Ca (QX) as alloying elements are suggested. The microstructure development was studied after the extrusion of round bars with varied processing parameters and was related to the mechanical properties and the degradation behavior of the alloys. Grain refinement and texture weakening mechanisms could be improved based on the alloy composition for enhancing the mechanical properties. Degradation rates largely depended on the nature of second phase particles rather than on the grain size, but remained suitable for biological applications. Furthermore, all alloy compositions exhibited promising cytocompatibility.

Hypoxia influences the effects of magnesium degradation products on the interactions between endothelial and mesenchymal stem cells.

Biodegradable materials like well-documented Magnesium (Mg) are promising for their biocompatibility and tissue regeneration. Since Mg degradation is reported to be oxygen related, the effects of Mg were hypothesised to be influenced by oxygen. As two vital components of bone marrow, endothelial cells (EC) and mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), their interactions represent high scientific interest for tissue engineering and biodegradable Mg application. Human umbilical cord perivascular (HUCPV) and umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) were selected as sources of MSC and EC, respectively. Two types of coculture models were established to represent different phases of MSC-EC interaction: (i) where cells were physically separated thanks to a transwell and (ii) where cells were allowed to have heterotypic cellular contacts. Cell migration, gene, cytokines, and proliferation were investigated in HUCPV-HUVEC coculture using DNA, flow cytometry, wound healing assay, semi-quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Mg degradation products increased HUCPV migration in transwell under hypoxia. Oxygen tension changed the gene regulation of migratory, angiogenetic or osteogenic regulators. Under contacting coculture and hypoxia, Mg degradation products remarkably increased cytokines (e.g., c-c motif chemokine ligand 2 and vascular endothelial growth factor) and MSC mineralisation. Mg degradation products decreased and increased the MSC proliferation in transwell and in heterotypic-contact coculture, respectively. In summary, this study indicates the roles of low oxygen and heterotypic contact to effects of Mg materials facilitating HUVEC and HUCPV. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE.

In vitro evaluation of the ZX11 magnesium alloy as potential bone plate: Degradability and mechanical integrity.

Considering the excellent biocompatibility of magnesium (Mg) alloys and their better mechanical properties compared to polymer materials, a wrought MgZnCa alloy with low contents of Zn (0.7 wt%) and Ca (0.6 wt%) (ZX11) was developed by twin roll casting (TRC) technology as potential biodegradable bone plates. The degradability and cell response of the ZX11 alloy were evaluated in vitro, as well as the mechanical integrity according to tensile tests after immersion. The results revealed a slightly higher degradation rate for the rolled ZX11, in comparison to that of the annealed one. It was mainly caused by the deformation twins and residual strain stored in the rolled alloy, which also seemed to promote localized degradation, thereby leading to a relatively fast deterioration in mechanical properties, especially the fracture strain/elongation. In contrast, after the annealing treatment, the alloy showed relatively lower strength, yet a lower degradation rate and quite stable elongation during the initial weeks of immersion were observed. More importantly, the ZX11 alloy, regardless of the annealing treatment, showed good in vitro cytocomopatibility regarding human primary osteoblasts. The assessment indicates the rolled alloy as a good choice for implantation sites where relatively high mechanical strength is needed during the early implantation, while the annealed alloy is a potential candidate for the sites which demand stable mechanical integrity during service. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The development of magnesium alloys as bone implants demands low degradation rate to gain not only a slow hydrogen evolution, but also a stable mechanical integrity during service. The present study develops a micro-alloyed MgZnCa alloy via twin roll casting (TRC) technology. It exhibited limited cytotoxicity, fairly low degradation rate and comparable strength to the reported Mg-1Zn-5Ca alloy which has been used as bone screws in clinical trials, indicating the great potential application as biodegradable bone implants. Furthermore, it showed good mechanical integrity during immersion to support the defect healing. Our results can aid other researchers to evaluate the mechanical integrity of biodegradable materials and to pay more attention to the effect of degradation behaviour on mechanical integrity of materials.