My Life in Changing Times: New Ideas and New Techniques.

I describe some of the science that I have been involved in during the last 60 years and the changes in equipment that made it possible. Starting with an interest in spectroscopy and measurement of NMR parameters, I moved to work on theoretical aspects of spin systems and infrared and Raman line shapes. This morphed into using the new technique of computer simulation to study such problems. The last half of my working life has concentrated on the application of computer simulation to a number of problems culminating in pioneering investigations of the behavior of ionic liquids.

Screening of highly charged ions in an ionic liquid; when will ion pairs form?

The properties of pairs of doubly charged solute ions are studied as a function of their separation in the ionic liquid, dimethylimidazolium chloride ([dmim][Cl]). Free energy (potential of mean force) profiles show that, as for singly charged ions, there is a barrier to oppositely charged ion pairs forming a contact ion pair. However for doubly charged ions this barrier is about twice as large (45 ± 10 kJ mol-1 rather than 20 ± 5 kJ mol-1). Contact ion pairs form when the short range repulsive force balances the direct interaction plus the screening force, and hence depend on the sizes of the solute ions. In order to understand the existence of the barrier and the extent of screening, local charge density distributions and various contributions to the energetics were examined. The barrier arises when the decrease in stabilisation of individual ions by their own solvation shells is balanced by the increase in other screening effects and the direct solute-solute interaction.

Optical Kerr effect spectroscopy of CS2 in monocationic and dicationic ionic liquids: insights into the intermolecular interactions in ionic liquids.

A comparative study of the intermolecular dynamics of CS2 in monocationic and dicationic ionic liquids (ILs) was performed using optical heterodyne-detected Raman-induced Kerr effect spectroscopy (OHD-RIKES). The reduced spectral densities (RSDs) of mixtures of CS2 in 1-alkyl-3-methylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethane)sulfonyl]amide ([CnC1im][NTf2] for n = 3-5) and 1,2n-bis(3-methylimidazolium-1-yl) alkane bis[(trifluoromethane)sulfonyl]amide ([(C1im)2C2n][NTf2]2 for n = 3-5) were investigated as a function of concentration at 295 K. An additivity model was used to obtain the CS2 contribution to the RSD of a mixture in the 0-200 cm-1 region. One of the aims of this study is to show how CS2 can be used as a probe of intermolecular/interionic interactions in ILs. The concentrations were chosen such that the CS2-to-imidazolium ring mole fraction of a mixture with [(C1im)2C2n][NTf2]2 (DIL(2n)) is the same as that of a mixture with [CnC1im][NTf2] (MIL(n)). As found previously for CS2 in monocationic ILs, the intermolecular spectrum of CS2 in dicationic ILs is lower in frequency and narrower than that of neat CS2. The new result is that the intermolecular spectrum of CS2 is higher in frequency in DIL(2n) than in the corresponding MIL(n), indicating that CS2 molecules experience a stiffer potential in dicationic ILs than in monocationic ILs. The intermolecular dynamics of CS2 being higher in frequency in DIL(2n) than in MIL(n) is consistent with recent molecular dynamics simulations (Lynden-Bell and Quitevis, J. Chem. Phys., 2018, 148, 193844) that show the stiffer potential is the result of greater confinement of CS2 in DIL(2n) than in MIL(n). We also show in this study how effects due to dilution and the intermolecular potential seen by a solute molecule in solution are unraveled.

The importance of polarizability: comparison of models of carbon disulphide in the ionic liquids [C1C1im][NTf2] and [C4C1im][NTf2].

The local environment of CS2 and in solution in two ionic liquids ([C1C1im][NTf2] and [C4C1im][NTf2]) are investigated by atomistic simulation and compared with that in neat CS2. The intermolecular vibrational densities of states of CS2 are calculated and compared with experimental OHD-RIKES spectra. The fair agreement of the results from solutions but poor agreement of the results from neat CS2 suggest that while collective effects are unimportant in solutions, they have a major effect on the OHD-RIKES spectrum of neat CS2. Comparing polarizable and unpolarizable models for CS2 emphasizes the importance of polarizability in determining local structure.

Molecular origin of high free energy barriers for alkali metal ion transfer through ionic liquid-graphene electrode interfaces.

In this work we study mechanisms of solvent-mediated ion interactions with charged surfaces in ionic liquids by molecular dynamics simulations, in an attempt to reveal the main trends that determine ion-electrode interactions in ionic liquids. We compare the interfacial behaviour of Li(+) and K(+) at a charged graphene sheet in a room temperature ionic liquid, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate, and its mixtures with lithium and potassium tetrafluoroborate salts. Our results show that there are dense interfacial solvation structures in these electrolytes that lead to the formation of high free energy barriers for these alkali metal cations between the bulk and direct contact with the negatively charged surface. We show that the stronger solvation of Li(+) in the ionic liquid leads to the formation of significantly higher interfacial free energy barriers for Li(+) than for K(+). The high free energy barriers observed in our simulations can explain the generally high interfacial resistance in electrochemical storage devices that use ionic liquid-based electrolytes. Overcoming these barriers is the rate-limiting step in the interfacial transport of alkali metal ions and, hence, appears to be a major drawback for a generalised application of ionic liquids in electrochemistry. Some plausible strategies for future theoretical and experimental work for tuning them are suggested.

Molecular dynamics simulations of the structure and single-particle dynamics of mixtures of divalent salts and ionic liquids.

We report a molecular dynamics study of the structure and single-particle dynamics of mixtures of a protic (ethylammonium nitrate) and an aprotic (1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexaflurophosphate [BMIM][PF6]) room-temperature ionic liquids doped with magnesium and calcium salts with a common anion at 298.15 K and 1 atm. The solvation of these divalent cations in dense ionic environments is analyzed by means of apparent molar volumes of the mixtures, radial distribution functions, and coordination numbers. For the protic mixtures, the effect of salt concentration on the network of hydrogen bonds is also considered. Moreover, single-particle dynamics of the salt cations is studied by means of their velocity autocorrelation functions and vibrational densities of states, explicitly analyzing the influence of salt concentration, and cation charge and mass on these magnitudes. The effect of the valency of the salt cation on these properties is considered comparing the results with those for the corresponding mixtures with lithium salts. We found that the main structural and dynamic features of the local solvation of divalent cations in ionic liquids are similar to those of monovalent salts, with cations being localized in the polar nanoregions of the bulk mixture coordinated in monodentate and bidentate coordination modes by the [NO3](-) and [PF6](-) anions. However, stronger electrostatic correlations of these polar nanoregions than in mixtures with salts with monovalent cations are found. The vibrational modes of the ionic liquid (IL) are seen to be scarcely affected by the addition of the salt, and the effect of mass and charge on the vibrational densities of states of the dissolved cations is reported. Cation mass is seen to exert a deeper influence than charge on the low-frequency vibrational spectra, giving a red shift of the vibrational modes and a virtual suppression of the higher energy vibrational modes for the heavier Ca(2+) cations. No qualitative difference with monovalent cations was found in what solvation is concerned, which suggests that no enhanced reduction of the mobility of these cations and their complexes in ILs respective to those of monovalent cations is to be expected.

An OHD-RIKES and simulation study comparing a benzylmethylimidazolium ionic liquid with an equimolar mixture of dimethylimidazolium and benzene.

The principal difference between 1-benzyl-3-methyl-imidazolium triflimide [BzC1im][NTf2] and an equimolar mixture of benzene and dimethylimidazolium triflimide [C1C1im][NTf2] is that in the former the benzene moieties are tied to the imidazolium ring, while in the latter they move independently. We use femtosecond optical heterodyne-detected Raman-induced Kerr effect spectroscopy (OHD-RIKES) and molecular simulations to explore some properties of these two systems. The Kerr spectra show small differences in the spectral densities; the simulations also show very similar environments for both the imidazolium rings and the phenyl or benzene parts of the molecules. The low frequency vibrational densities of states are also similar in the model systems. In order to perform the simulations we developed a model for the [BzC1im](+) cation and found that the barriers to rotation of the two parts of the molecule are low.

Local structure and intermolecular dynamics of an equimolar benzene and 1,3-dimethylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethane)sulfonyl]amide mixture: Molecular dynamics simulations and OKE spectroscopic measurements.

The local structure and intermolecular dynamics of an equimolar mixture of benzene and 1,3-dimethylimidazolium bis[(trifluoromethane)sulfonyl]amide ([dmim][NTf2]) were studied using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and femtosecond optical Kerr effect (OKE) spectroscopy. The OKE spectrum of the benzene/[dmim][NTf2] mixture at 295 K was analyzed by comparing it to an ideal mixture spectrum obtained by taking the volume-fraction weighted sum of the OKE spectra of the pure liquids. The experimental mixture spectrum is higher in frequency and broader than that of the ideal mixture spectrum. These spectral differences are rationalized in terms of the local structure around benzene molecules in the mixture and the intermolecular dynamics as reflected in the density of states from the MD simulations. Specifically, we attribute the deviation of the OKE spectrum of the mixture from ideal behavior to benzene molecules seeing a stiffer intermolecular potential due to their being trapped in cages comprised of ions in the first solvation shell.

Molecular dynamics simulations of the structure of the graphene-ionic liquid/alkali salt mixtures interface.

We performed molecular dynamics simulations of mixtures of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate with lithium tetrafluoroborate and potassium tetrafluoroborate between two charged and uncharged graphene walls, in order to analyze the structure of the well-known formation of layers that takes place on liquids under confinement. For this purpose, we studied the molecular density profiles, free energy profiles for bringing lithium and potassium cations from the bulk mixture to the graphene wall and the orientational distributions of imidazolium rings within the first adsorbed layer as a function of salt concentration and electrode potential. The charge densities in the electrodes were chosen to be zero and ±1 e nm(-2), and the salt molar percentages were %salt = 0, 10 and 25. We found that the layered structure extends up to 1-2 nm, where the bulk behaviour is recovered. In addition, whereas for the neutral surface the layers are composed of both ionic species, increasing the electrode potential, the structure changes to alternating cationic and anionic layers leading to an overcompensation of the charge of the previous layer. We also calculated the distribution of angles of imidazolium rings near neutral and charged graphene walls, finding a limited influence of the added salt. In addition, the average tilt of the imidazolium ring within the first layer goes from 36° with respect to a normal vector to the uncharged graphene wall to 62° in the presence of charged walls. The free energy profiles revealed that lithium and potassium ions are adsorbed on the negative surface only for the highest amount of salt, since the free energy barriers for approaching this electrode are considerably higher than kBT.

Investigation of the local structure of mixtures of an ionic liquid with polar molecular species through molecular dynamics: cluster formation and angular distributions.

In this work, we used molecular dynamics simulations to analyze in detail the spatial distributions of the different constituents in mixtures of 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate with three polar molecular species: water and two alcohols of different chain lengths (methanol and ethanol). In particular, we report results regarding the influence of the chosen species and its concentration on the formation of ionic and molecular clusters over the whole miscibility range, as well as on the angular distribution of polar molecules around the anion and the cation in these systems. Both analyses showed that addition of a molecular species breaks down the polar network of the pure ionic liquid in clusters whose mean size decreases progressively as more molecules are added. At very high concentrations of the molecular species, the ions are found to be isolated in mixtures with water and methanol, but they tend to form pairs in ethanol. In mixtures with water we identified large clusters that form a water network at very high water concentrations, while at low water concentrations polar molecules tend to form smaller aggregates. In contrast, in mixtures with alkanols there is no evidence of the formation of large alcohol clusters at any concentration. Spatial order in alcohol was also studied by means of the Kirkwood G factor, reaching the conclusion that the angular correlations which appear in pure alcohols due to dipole interactions are destroyed by the ionic liquid, even when present only in tiny amounts.

A computational investigation of thermodynamics, structure, dynamics and solvation behavior in modified water models.

We investigate the properties of geometrically modified water models by performing molecular dynamics simulations of perturbations of the extended simple point charge (SPC/E) model of water over a wide range of temperatures at 1 bar. The geometric modification consists of altering the H-O-H angle in SPC/E. The dipole moment is held constant by altering the O-H bond length, while the electrostatic charges are left unchanged. We find that a H-O-H angle of at least 100 degrees is necessary for the appearance of density anomalies and of solubility extrema with respect to temperature for small apolar solutes. We observe the occurrence of two incompatible types of structural order in these models: Tetrahedral, with waterlike translational order for bent models with H-O-H angles in excess of 100 degrees ; and linear, with Lennard-Jones-like orientationally averaged translational order for smaller H-O-H angles. Increasing the H-O-H angle causes the density to increase, while at the same time shifting waterlike anomalies to progressively higher temperatures. For bent models with H-O-H angle greater than SPC/E's, we observe arrest of translational motion at 300 K (115 degrees) and 330 K (120 degrees).

Hydrophobic solvation of Gay-Berne particles in modified water models.

The solvation of large hydrophobic solutes, modeled as repulsive and attractive Gay-Berne oblate ellipsoids, is characterized in several modified water liquids using the SPC/E model as the reference water fluid. We find that small amounts of attraction between the Gay-Berne particle and any model fluid result in wetting of the hydrophobic surface. However, significant differences are found among the modified and SPC/E water models and the critical distances in which they dewet the hydrophobic surfaces of pairs of repulsive Gay-Berne particles. We find that the dewetting trends for repulsive Gay-Berne particles in the various model liquids correlate directly with their surface tensions, the widths of the interfaces they form, and the openness of their network structure. The largest critical separations are found in liquids with the smallest surface tensions and the broadest interfaces as measured by the Egelstaff-Widom length.

Clusters, liquids, and crystals of dialkyimidazolium salts. A combined perspective from ab initio and classical computer simulations.

We summarize results obtained by a combination of ab initio and classical computer simulations of dialkylimidazolium ionic liquids in different states of aggregation, from crystals to liquids and clusters. Unusual features arising from the competition between electrostatic, dispersion, and hydrogen-bonding interactions are identified at the origin of observed structural patterns. We also discuss the way Brønsted acids interact with ionic liquids leading to the formation of hydrogen-bonded anions.

Simulations of ionic liquids, solutions, and surfaces.

We have been using atomistic simulation for the last 10 years to study properties of imidazolium-based ionic liquids. Studies of dissolved molecules show the importance of electrostatic interactions in both aromatic and hydrogen-bonding solutes. However, the local structure strongly depends upon ion-ion and solute-solvent interactions. We find interesting local alignments of cations at the gas-liquid and solid-liquid interfaces, which give a potential drop through the surface. If the solid interface is charged, this charge is strongly screened over distances of a few nanometres and this screening decays on a fast time scale. We have studied the sensitivity of the liquid structure to force-field parameters and show that results from ab initio simulations can be used in the development of force fields.

Solvation structure and transport of acidic protons in ionic liquids: a first-principles simulation study.

Ab initio simulations of a single molecule of HCl in liquid dimethyl imidazolium chloride [dmim][Cl] show that the acidic proton exists as a symmetric, linear ClHCl(-) species. Details of the solvation structure around this molecule are given. The proton-transfer process was investigated by applying a force along the antisymmetric stretch coordinate until the molecule broke. Changes in the free energy and local solvation structure during this process were investigated. In the reaction mechanism identified, a free chloride approaches the proton from the side. As the original ClHCl(-) distorts and the incoming chloride forms a new bond to the proton, one of the original chlorine atoms is expelled and a new linear molecule is formed.

Density functional theory study of tetrathiafulvalene and thianthrene in acetonitrile: structure, dynamics, and redox properties.

The redox potentials of the organic compounds tetrathiafulvalene (TTF) and thianthrene (TH) in an explicit aprotic polar solvent, acetonitrile, have been computed using ab initio molecular dynamics simulation based on a Gaussian basis set methodology. The density functional description of the pure solvent yields a diffuse and mobile liquid, with structural and dynamical properties that are in good agreement with earlier classical models and experiment. Molecular dynamics simulation of both solute species in their neutral and radical cation states combined with free energy difference calculations result in estimates for the redox potentials of the reactions TH*+ + TTF --> TH + TTF*+ and TH2+ + TTF*+ --> TH*+ + TTF2+. The obtained values are 0.95 +/- 0.06 and 1.09 +/- 0.06 V, respectively, in excellent agreement with experimental data of 0.93 and 1.08 V. Our computational approach is based on Marcus theory, assuming quadratic free energy surfaces. We show that this approximation can still be accurate in systems, such as TH, that undergo a significant change in geometry upon oxidation. Furthermore, despite the different localization of the spin density in the radical cations, results based on self-interaction-corrected functionals and on standard generalized gradient approximations are identical to within 10 meV.

Ab initio molecular dynamics simulation of a room temperature ionic liquid.

Ab initio molecular dynamics simulations have been performed for the first time on the room-temperature organic ionic liquid dimethyl imidazolium chloride [DMIM][Cl] using density functional theory. The aim is to compare the local liquid structure with both that obtained from two different classical force fields and from neutron scattering experiments. The local structure around the cation shows significant differences compared to both the classical calculations and the neutron results. In particular, and unlike in the gas-phase ion pair, chloride ions tend to be located near a ring C-H proton in a position suggesting hydrogen bonding. The results are used to suggest ways in which the classical potentials may be improved.