OrganoCat Fractionation of Empty Fruit Bunches from Palm Trees into Lignin, Sugars, and Cellulose-Enriched Pulp.

The palm oil industry produces large amounts of empty fruit bunches (EFB) as waste. EFB are very recalcitrant toward further processing, although their valorization could create novel incentives and bio-economic opportunities for the industries involved. Herein, EFB have been successfully subjected to the OrganoCat pretreatment-using 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid as the biogenic catalyst-to fractionate and separate this lignocellulosic material into its main components in a single step. The pretreatment of EFB leads to the deacetylation and depolymerization of noncellulosic polysaccharides and to the partial delignification of the cellulosic fiber. The OrganoCat processing of EFB yielded 45 ± 0.5 wt % cellulose-enriched pulp, 20 ± 0.7 wt % extracted lignin, 3.8 ± 0.2 wt % furfural, and 11 ± 0.6 wt % hydrolyzed sugars. The obtained EFB-pulp showed high accessibility to cellulases, resulting in a glucan conversion of 73 ± 2% after 72 h (15 ± 2% after 1 h) with commercial cellulase cocktail (Accellerase 1500). Overall, the results suggest that the treatment of the EFB material using OrganoCat may create promising paths for the full valorization of EFBs.

The workability of Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) and Pseudomonas putida KT2440 expression platforms with autodisplayed cellulases: a comparison.

This article comparatively reports the workability of Escherichia coli BL21(DE3) and Pseudomonas putida KT2440 cell factories for the expression of three model autodisplayed cellulases (i.e., endoglucanase, BsCel5A; exoglucanase, CelK; ß-glucosidase, BglA). The differentiation of the recombinant cells was restricted to their cell growth and enzyme expression/activity attributes. Comparatively, the recombinant E. coli showed higher cell growth rates but lower enzyme activities than the recombinant P. putida. However, the endo-, exoglucanase, and ß-glucosidase on the surfaces of both cell factories showed activity over a broad range of pH (4-10) and temperature (30-100 °C). The pH and temperature optima were pH 6, 60 °C (BsCel5A); pH 6, 60-70 °C (CelK); and pH 6, 50 °C (BglA). Overall, the P. putida cell factory with autodisplayed enzymes demonstrated higher bioactivity and remarkable biochemical characteristics and thus was chosen for the saccharification of filter paper. A volumetric blend of the three cellulases with P. putida as the host yielded a ratio of 1:1:1.5 of endoglucanase, exoglucanase, and ß-glucosidase, respectively, as the optimum blend composition for filter paper degradation. At an optical density (578 nm) of 50, the blend generated a maximum sugar yield of about 0.7 mg/ml (~ 0.08 U/g) from Whatman filter paper (Ø 6 mm, ~ 2.5 mg) within 24 h.

Proof of concept for the simplified breakdown of cellulose by combining Pseudomonas putida strains with surface displayed thermophilic endocellulase, exocellulase and ß-glucosidase.

BACKGROUND: The production and employment of cellulases still represents an economic bottleneck in the conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to biofuels and other biocommodities. This process could be simplified by displaying the necessary enzymes on a microbial cell surface. Such an approach, however, requires an appropriate host organism which on the one hand can withstand the rough environment coming along with lignocellulose hydrolysis, and on the other hand does not consume the generated glucose so that it remains available for subsequent fermentation steps. RESULTS: The robust soil bacterium Pseudomonas putida showed a strongly reduced uptake of glucose above a temperature of 50 °C, while remaining structurally intact hence recyclable, which makes it suitable for cellulose hydrolysis at elevated temperatures. Consequently, three complementary, thermophilic cellulases from Ruminiclostridium thermocellum were displayed on the surface of the bacterium. All three enzymes retained their activity on the cell surface. A mixture of three strains displaying each one of these enzymes was able to synergistically hydrolyze filter paper at 55 °C, producing 20 µg glucose per mL cell suspension in 24 h. CONCLUSION: We could establish Pseudomonas putida as host for the surface display of cellulases, and provided proof-of-concept for a fast and simple cellulose breakdown process at elevated temperatures. This study opens up new perspectives for the application of P. putida in the production of biofuels and other biotechnological products.

Co-expression of active human cytochrome P450 1A2 and cytochrome P450 reductase on the cell surface of Escherichia coli.

BACKGROUND: Human cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes mediate the first step in the breakdown of most drugs and are strongly involved in drug-drug interactions, drug clearance and activation of prodrugs. Their biocatalytic behavior is a key parameter during drug development which requires preparative synthesis of CYP related drug metabolites. However, recombinant expression of CYP enzymes is a challenging bottleneck for drug metabolite biosynthesis. Therefore, we developed a novel approach by displaying human cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) and cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) on the surface of Escherichia coli. RESULTS: To present human CYP1A2 and CPR on the surface, we employed autodisplay. Both enzymes were displayed on the surface which was demonstrated by protease and antibody accessibility tests. CPR activity was first confirmed with the protein substrate cytochrome c. Cells co-expressing CYP1A2 and CPR were capable of catalyzing the conversion of the known CYP1A2 substrates 7-ethoxyresorufin, phenacetin and the artificial substrate luciferin-MultiCYP, which would not have been possible without interaction of both enzymes. Biocatalytic activity was strongly influenced by the composition of the growth medium. Addition of 5-aminolevulinic acid was necessary to obtain a fully active whole cell biocatalyst and was superior to the addition of heme. CONCLUSION: We demonstrated that CYP1A2 and CPR can be co-expressed catalytically active on the cell surface of E. coli. It is a promising step towards pharmaceutical applications such as the synthesis of drug metabolites.

A simplified process design for P450 driven hydroxylation based on surface displayed enzymes.

New production routes for fine and bulk chemicals are important to establish further sustainable processes in industry. Besides the identification of new biocatalysts and new production routes the optimization of existing processes in regard to an improved utilization of the catalysts are needed. In this paper we describe the successful expression of P450BM3 on the surface of E. coli cells with the Autodisplay system. The successful hydroxylation of palmitic acid by using surface-displayed P450BM3 was shown. Besides optimization of surface protein expression, several cofactor regeneration systems were compared and evaluated. Afterwards, the development of a suitable process for the biocatalytic hydroxylation of fatty acids based on the re-use of the catalysts after a simple centrifugation was investigated. It was shown that the catalyst can be used for several times without any loss in activity. By using surface-displayed P450s in combination with an enzymatic cofactor regeneration system a total turnover number of up to 54,700 could be reached, to the knowledge of the authors the highest value reported for a P450 monooxygenase to date. Further optimizations of the described reaction system can have an enormous impact on the process design for more sustainable bioprocesses. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 1225-1233. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Autodisplay of nitrilase from Klebsiella pneumoniae and whole-cell degradation of oxynil herbicides and related compounds.

Using the Autodisplay system, a recombinant Escherichia coli strain displaying the dimeric nitrilase from Klebsiella pneumoniae subsp. ozaenae (NitKp) on the cell surface was constructed. Localization of the nitrilase in the cell envelope of E. coli was monitored by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and surface exposure was verified by its accessibility to externally added protease. The whole-cell biocatalyst obtained converted the substrates analyzed in the following order: chloroxynil > bromoxynil > ioxynil > 3-bromo-4-hydroxybenzonitrile (1.67, 0.89, 0.13, and 0.09 mM product formation within 72 h, respectively), indicating the same substrate specificity for the displayed enzyme as for the free enzyme. The whole-cell biocatalyst was also able to convert 3-fluoro-4-hydroxybenzonitrile and 3,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxybenzonitrile to the corresponding carboxylic acids. In contrast, it was not possible to detect any enzyme activity when 4-methoxybenzonitrile was used as substrate. The temperature optimum determined was 45 °C for the surface-displayed enzyme instead of 35 °C for the purified enzyme. In addition, the optimum activity of the displayed nitrilase was shifted to more acidic pH in comparison to the free enzyme.

Autodisplay of enzymes--molecular basis and perspectives.

To display an enzyme on the surface of a living cell is an important step forward towards a broader use of biocatalysts. Enzymes immobilized on surfaces appeared to be more stable compared to free molecules. It is possible by standard techniques to let the bacterial cell (e.g. Escherichia coli) decorate its surface with the enzyme and produce it on high amounts with a minimum of costs and equipment. Moreover, these cells can be recovered and reused in several subsequent process cycles. Among other systems, autodisplay has some extra features that could overcome limitations in the industrial applications of enzymes. One major advantage of autodisplay is the motility of the anchoring domain. Enzyme subunits exposed at the cell surface having affinity to each other will spontaneously form dimers or multimers. Using autodisplay enzymes with prosthetic groups can be displayed, expanding the application of surface display to the industrial important P450 enzymes. Finally, up to 105-106 enzyme molecules can be displayed on a single cell. In the present review, we summarize recent achievements in the autodisplay of enzymes with particular attention to industrial needs and process development. Applications that will provide sustainable solutions towards a bio-based industry are discussed.

Autoantibodies to αS1-casein are induced by breast-feeding.

BACKGROUND: The generation of antibodies is impaired in newborns due to an immature immune system and reduced exposure to pathogens due to maternally derived antibodies and placental functions. During nursing, the immune system of newborns is challenged with multiple milk-derived proteins. Amongst them, caseins are the main constituent. In particular, human αS1-casein (CSN1S1) was recently shown to possess immunomodulatory properties. We were thus interested to determine if auto-antibodies to CSN1S1 are induced by breast-feeding and may be sustained into adulthood. METHODS: 62 sera of healthy adult individuals who were (n = 37) or were not (n = 25) breast-fed against human CSN1S1 were investigated by a new SD (surface display)-ELISA. For cross-checking, these sera were tested for anti Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) antibodies by a commercial ELISA. RESULTS: IgG-antibodies were predominantly detected in individuals who had been nursed. At a cut-off value of 0.4, the SD-ELISA identified individuals with a history of having been breast-fed with a sensitivity of 80% and a specificity of 92%. Under these conditions, 35 out of 37 sera from healthy donors, who where breast-fed, reacted positively but only 5 sera of the 25 donors who were not breast-fed. The duration of breast-feeding was of no consequence to the antibody reaction as some healthy donors were only short term breast-fed (5 days minimum until 6 weeks maximum), but exhibited significant serum reaction against human CSN1S1 nonetheless. CONCLUSION: We postulate that human CSN1S1 is an autoantigen. The antigenicity is orally determined, caused by breast-feeding, and sustained into adulthood.

Escherichia coli with autodisplayed Z-domain of protein A for signal amplification of SPR biosensor.

Generally, an immunoaffinity SPR biosensor detects a target analyte in a sample through highly selective adsorption by using the antigen-antibody interaction. For improving the sensitivity, various kinds of particles have been added to the already bound analytes on the SPR biosensor (sandwich assay). In this work, signal amplification was demonstrated by the expression of the IgG-binding Z-domain of protein A on the outer membrane of Escherichia coli via "Autodisplay". The amount of Z-domain of protein A expressed on the outer membrane was calculated to be 280,000 molecules per cell. In addition, the IgG-binding ability of the expressed protein was characterized using FACS analysis. The signal amplification of the SPR biosensor was performed in the sandwich assay format using a model of horseradish peroxidase (HRP); the limit of detection was determined to be significantly improved from 1 microg/ml to 1 ng/ml. Finally, myoglobin analysis was demonstrated for the medical diagnosis of cardiac diseases. The detection limit was estimated to be improved from 10 ng/ml to <1 ng/ml. These results show that Z-domain-displaying E. coli can be successfully used for the signal amplification of immunoaffinity biosensors, thereby improving the sensitivity and the limit of detection.

Esterase autodisplay: enzyme engineering and whole-cell activity determination in microplates with pH sensors.

Among the GDSL family of serine esterases/lipases is a group of bacterial enzymes that posses C-terminal extensions involved in outer membrane anchoring or translocation. ApeE from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, a member of this group, has been expressed in Escherichia coli and was resistant to protease digestion when the protease was added to whole cells, indicating a periplasmic localization. The five consensus blocks conserved within all GDSL esterases were identified in ApeE by multiple sequence alignment and separated from the C-terminal extension. The DNA sequence spanning the four invariant residues Ser, Gly, Asn, and His, and hence representing the catalytic domains of ApeE, was amplified by PCR and fused in frame to the transport domains of the autodisplay system. The resulting artificial esterase, called EsjA, was overexpressed in the cell envelope of E. coli and was shown to be active by the use of alpha-naphthyl acetate (alpha-NA) as a substrate in an in-gel activity stain after sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Surface exposure of EsjA was indicated by its accessibility to protease added to whole cells. The esterase activity of whole cells displaying EsjA was determined by a pH agar assay and by the use of microplates with integrated pH-dependent optical sensors. alpha-NA, alpha-naphthyl butyrate, and alpha-naphthyl caproate were used as substrates, and it turned out that the substrate preferences of artificial EsjA were altered in comparison to original ApeE. Our results indicate that autodisplay of esterase in combination with pH sensor microplates can provide a new platform technology for the screening of tailor-made hydrolase activities.

Novel 5alpha-reductase inhibitors: synthesis, structure-activity studies, and pharmacokinetic profile of phenoxybenzoylphenyl acetic acids.

Novel substituted benzoyl benzoic acids and phenylacetic acids 1-14 have been synthesized and evaluated for inhibition of rat and human steroid 5alpha-reductase isozymes 1 and 2. The compounds turned out to be potent and selective human type 2 enzyme inhibitors, exhibiting IC(50) values in the nanomolar range. The phenylacetic acid derivatives were more potent than the analogous benzoic acids. Bromination in the 4-position of the phenoxy moiety led to the strongest inhibitor in this class (12; IC(50) = 5 nM), which was equipotent to finasteride. Since oral absorption is essential for a potential drug, 12 was further examined. In the parallel artificial membrane permeation assay (PAMPA) it turned out to be a good permeator, whereas it was a medium permeator in Caco2 cells. After oral administration (40 mg/kg) to rats a high bioavailability and a biological half-life of 5.5 h were observed, making it a promising candidate for clinical evaluation.

Microplates with integrated oxygen sensors for kinetic cell respiration measurement and cytotoxicity testing in primary and secondary cell lines.

This paper presents a cytotoxicity and cell respiration assay that is nondestructive and kinetic. It makes use of 96-well microplates integrated with oxygen sensors. The oxygen signal monitored on-line gives an indication of the cell viability. We show its application for suspension cell lines (Chinese hamster ovary and HL60 cells) as well as adherent (Caco2 cells) and primary (rat hepatocytes) cells using well-known cytotoxic compounds (sodium azide, diclofenac, clozapine, sodium dodecyl sulfate, 2-thiouracil, tamoxifen, and tranylcypromine). The 50% lethality concentration (LC50) obtained from the assay is compared with the standard 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2- yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide end-point assay. The cells can be grown directly in the plates, and the assay requires no further reagents or processing. The cells can be harvested for further analysis, if required. The on-line dynamic measurement allows the calculation of LC50 as a function of exposure time. LC50 was shown to decrease with time in HL60 cells. The dynamics of this process was considerably different for the three compounds sodium dodecyl sulfate, tamoxifen, and diclofenac, indicating a large potential of application of this method for cell death studies. The assay system can be applied to almost any cell-based systems with little adaptation. The assay is robust, flexible, and applicable for medium- to high-throughput systems requiring only minimal handling and no additional agent.

Analysis of the vitamin D system in basal cell carcinomas (BCCs).

Using real-time PCR (LightCycler) and immunohistochemistry, we have analyzed expression of key components of the vitamin D system in basal cell carcinomas (BCCs) and normal human skin (NS). Increased VDR-immunoreactivity was demonstrated in BCCs using a streptavidin-peroxidase technique. RNA expression of vitamin D receptor (VDR) and of main enzymes involved in synthesis and metabolism of calcitriol (vitamin D-25-hydroxylase [25-OHase], 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1alpha-hydroxylase [1alpha-OHase], 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-24-hydroxylase [24-OHase]) was detected in BCCs and NS. Expression levels were determined as ratios between target genes (VDR, 1alpha-OHase, 25-OHase, 24-OHase) and the housekeeping gene glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) as internal control. Median of mRNA ratios for VDR/GAPDH (BCCs: 16.54; NS: 0.00021), 1alpha-OHase/GAPDH (BCCs: 0.739; NS 0.000803) and 24-OHase/GAPDH (BCCs: 0.00585; NS 0.000000366) was significantly (Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test) elevated in BCCs. In contrast, median of mRNA ratio for 25-OHase/GAPDH (BCCs: 0.17; NS: 0.016) was not significantly altered in BCCs as compared to NS. Additionally, we report for the first time expression of 1alpha-OHase splice variants in BCCs and NS, that were detected using conventional RT-PCR. In conclusion, our findings provide supportive evidence for the concept that endogeneous synthesis and metabolism of vitamin D metabolites as well as VDR expression may regulate growth characteristics of BCCs. New vitamin D analogs that exert little calcemic side effects, their precursors, or inhibitors of 24-OHase may offer a new approach for the prevention or therapy of BCCs. The function of alternative transcripts of 1alpha-OHase that we describe here for the first time in BCCs and NS and their effect on activity level has to be investigated in future experiments.

The conjugative plasmid pSG5 from Streptomyces ghanaensis DSM 2932 differs in its transfer functions from other Streptomyces rolling-circle-type plasmids.

The Streptomyces ghanaensis plasmid pSG5 is self-transmissible but does not form the growth-retardation zones (pocks) normally characteristic of the Streptomyces plasmid-transfer process. The complete nucleotide sequence of pSG5 was determined on both strands. pSG5 is 12,208 bp in length and has a GC content of 68 mol%. Characterization of the open reading frames by insertion and deletion analysis revealed that only a single gene, traB, is involved in the transfer of pSG5. The deduced amino acid sequence of TraB is similar to the SpoIIIE protein that is responsible for chromosome translocation during prespore formation of Bacillus subtilis. In contrast to the tra genes of the other Streptomyces plasmids, the pSG5 traB does not represent a kill function. Although pSG5 transfer is not associated with pock formation, pSG5 was shown to possess putative spd genes that are responsible for the pock phenotype of other Streptomyces plasmids. However, promoter-probe experiments revealed that the spd genes of pSG5 are not transcribed, thus explaining the deficiency in pock formation.