Mental health among Ebola survivors in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea: results from a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the prevalence and correlates of depression and anxiety among adult Ebola virus disease (EVD) survivors in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: One-on-one surveys were conducted in EVD-affected communities in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea in early 2018. PARTICIPANTS: 1495 adult EVD survivors (726 male, 769 female). PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) depression scores and Generalised Anxiety Disorder-7 (GAD-7) scores. RESULTS: Prevalence and severity of depression and anxiety varied across the three countries. Sierra Leone had the highest prevalence of depression, with 22.0% of participants meeting the criteria for a tentative diagnosis of depression, compared with 20.2% in Liberia and 13.0% in Guinea. Sierra Leone also showed the highest prevalence of anxiety, with 10.7% of participants meeting criteria for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD-7 score ≥10), compared with 9.9% in Liberia and 4.2% in Guinea. Between one-third and one-half of respondents reported little interest or pleasure in doing things in the previous 2 weeks (range: 47.0% in Liberia to 37.6% in Sierra Leone), and more than 1 in 10 respondents reported ideation of self-harm or suicide (range: 19.4% in Sierra Leone to 10.4% in Guinea). Higher depression and anxiety scores were statistically significantly associated with each other and with experiences of health facility-based stigma in all three countries. Other associations between mental health scores and respondent characteristics varied across countries. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that both depression and anxiety are common among EVD survivors in Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea, but that there is country-level heterogeneity in prevalence, severity and correlates of these conditions. All three countries should work to make mental health services available for survivors, and governments and organisations should consider the intersection between EVD-related stigma and mental health when designing programmes and training healthcare providers.

Community engagement for health system resilience: evidence from Liberia's Ebola epidemic.

The importance of community engagement (CE) for health system resilience is established in theoretical and empirical literature. The practical dimensions of how to operationalize theory and implement its principles have been less explored, especially within low-resource crisis settings. It is therefore unclear how CE is drawn upon and how, if at all, it facilitates health system resilience in times of health system crises. To address this critical gap, we adapt and apply existing theoretical CE frameworks to analyse qualitative data from 92 in-depth interviews and 16 focus group discussions collected with health system stakeholders in Liberia in the aftermath of the 2014-15 Ebola outbreak. Health system stakeholders indicated that CE was a crucial contributing factor in addressing the Ebola epidemic in Liberia. Multiple forms of CE were used during the outbreak; however, only some forms were perceived as meaningful, such as the formation of community-based surveillance teams. To achieve meaningful CE, participants recommended that communities be treated as active participants in-as opposed to passive recipients of-health response efforts and that communication platforms for CE be established ahead of a crisis. Participant responses highlight that meaningful CE led to improved communication with and increased trust in health authorities and programming. This facilitated health system response efforts, leading to a fortuitous cycle of increased trust, improved communication and continued meaningful CE-all necessary conditions for health system resilience. This study refines our understanding of CE and demonstrates the ways in which meaningful CE and trust work together in mutually reinforcing and beneficial ways. These findings provide empirical evidence on which to base policies and programmes aimed at improving health system resilience in low-resource settings to more effectively respond to health system crises.

Beyond the crisis: did the Ebola epidemic improve resilience of Liberia's health system?

Resilience was widely identified as a critical attribute for strong health systems following the 2014-15 West Africa Ebola epidemic. In Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea, struggles to control the disease and suspension of the operation of many health services demonstrated that health systems must plan for resilience long before a crisis. However, the operational elements of resilience and ways that a crisis experience can shape resilience are not well described in the literature. To understand how a health system adapts to crisis and how the priorities of different health system actors influence this response we conducted interviews with global, national, and local respondents in Liberia between July and September 2015 (n = 108), several months after the country was first declared Ebola-free. We found that health system resilience functions prioritized by global and national actors improved to a greater extent than those valued by community leaders and local health actors over the course of the epidemic. Although the Ebola epidemic stimulated some positive adaptations in Liberia's health system, building a truly resilient health system will require longer-term investments and sustained attention long beyond the crisis.

Infection prevention and control of the Ebola outbreak in Liberia, 2014-2015: key challenges and successes.

Prior to the 2014-2015 Ebola outbreak, infection prevention and control (IPC) activities in Liberian healthcare facilities were basic. There was no national IPC guidance, nor dedicated staff at any level of government or healthcare facility (HCF) to ensure the implementation of best practices. Efforts to improve IPC early in the outbreak were ad hoc and messaging was inconsistent. In September 2014, at the height of the outbreak, the national IPC Task Force was established with a Ministry of Health (MoH) mandate to coordinate IPC response activities. A steering group of the Task Force, including representatives of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), supported MoH leadership in implementing standardized messaging and IPC training for the health workforce. This structure, and the activities implemented under this structure, played a crucial role in the implementation of IPC practices and successful containment of the outbreak. Moving forward, a nationwide culture of IPC needs to be maintained through this governance structure in Liberia's health system to prevent and respond to future outbreaks.

Can the health system deliver? Determinants of rural Liberians' confidence in health care.

BACKGROUND: Following a protracted civil war, Liberia is rebuilding its health system. One of the aims of reconstruction is to expand access to health care to a previously underserved rural population. OBJECTIVE: This study analysed the determinants of Liberians' confidence in their ability to obtain needed care for themselves or their children in case of serious illness. METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of 1435 adults in Nimba County, Liberia was conducted. Logistic regression models were estimated with reported ability to obtain needed health services for serious illness as the dependent variable, and demographics, health need, health system characteristics and informal health care as independent variables. RESULTS: Overall, 50.56% of respondents reported that they could obtain needed services for themselves or their children. Confidence in the ability to obtain care increased with education [odds ratio (OR) 1.62, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.19-2.21] and poor physical health in the past 30 days (OR 1.38, 95% CI: 1.01-1.88), and decreased with poverty (OR 0.66, 95% CI: 0.47-0.93), exposure to previous trauma (OR 0.50, 95% CI: 0.36-0.71), dissatisfaction with respondent's last formal health visit (OR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.54-0.91) and high utilization of the informal health sector (OR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.73-0.96). No correlation was found between health system confidence and being female, being 35 years old or younger, formal health sector use, being within an hour of a clinic and the closest clinic having basic capabilities. CONCLUSIONS: Respondents' experiences with the health care system had a greater correlation with their confidence in obtaining needed health care than proximity or quality of medical equipment in health clinics. Despite pro-poor policies guiding health system reconstruction, poor and less educated individuals have less confidence that the health system can meet their health needs.

Population preferences for health care in liberia: insights for rebuilding a health system.

OBJECTIVE. To quantify the influence of health system attributes, particularly quality of care, on preferences for health clinics in Liberia, a country with a high burden of disease that is rebuilding its health system after 14 years of civil war. DATA SOURCES/STUDY SETTING. Informed by focus group discussions, a discrete choice experiment (DCE) was designed to assess preferences for structure and process of care at health clinics. The DCE was fielded in rural, northern Liberia as part of a 2008 population-based survey on health care utilization. DATA COLLECTION. The survey response rate was 98 percent with DCE data available for 1,431 respondents. Mixed logit models were used to estimate the influence of six attributes on choice of hypothetical clinics for a future illness. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS. Participants' choice of clinic was most influenced by provision of a thorough physical exam and consistent availability of medicines. Respectful treatment and government (versus NGO) management marginally increased utility, whereas waiting time was not significant. CONCLUSIONS. Liberians value technical quality of care over convenience, courtesy, and public management in selecting clinics for curative care. This suggests that investments in improved competence of providers and availability of medicines may increase population utilization of essential services as well as promote better clinical outcomes.

Which doctor?: Determinants of utilization of formal and informal health care in postconflict liberia.

BACKGROUND: Liberia is rebuilding its health system after a lengthy civil war in which traditional health care was the only reliable source of care. OBJECTIVE: This study explored individual, village, and health system factors related to the utilization of health clinics versus informal providers (eg, healers, medicine sellers) in Liberia. RESEARCH DESIGN, PARTICIPANTS, AND MEASURES: This was a cross-sectional population-representative survey of 1435 adults living in rural Nimba County, Liberia. Participants were asked about past year visits to traditional and formal health care providers and demographics, health, and trauma indicators. The association between formal and informal visits and potential determinants was estimated in separate models using generalized estimating equations to adjust for village-level clustering. RESULTS: The median number of visits in the past year to formal and informal providers was 3 and 10, respectively. Clinic visits increased with younger age and female sex, past trauma exposure, the number of traditional healers, and the presence of a facility dispenser. Frequency of informal visits increased with poor self-reported mental and physical health, the presence of facility fees and decreased with literacy and wealth and satisfaction with the formal health system. CONCLUSIONS: Rural Liberians use both formal and informal health care extensively and as complements rather than substitutes. The reliance on traditional medicine to address health needs is of concern in a country with a high disease burden. Health system investments that build public confidence in the health system may help shift demand from informal to formal health care.

Persistent psychopathology in the wake of civil war: long-term posttraumatic stress disorder in Nimba County, Liberia.

OBJECTIVES: We assessed the geographical distribution of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in postconflict Nimba County, Liberia, nearly 2 decades after the end of primary conflict in the area, and we related this pattern to the history of conflict. METHODS: We administered individual surveys to a population-based sample of 1376 adults aged 19 years or older. In addition, we conducted a historical analysis of conflict in Nimba County, Liberia, where the civil war started in 1989. RESULTS: The prevalence of PTSD in Nimba County was high at 48.3% (95% confidence interval=45.7, 50.9; n=664). The geographical patterns of traumatic event experiences and of PTSD were consistent with the best available information about the path of the intranational conflict that Nimba County experienced in 1989-1990. CONCLUSIONS: The demonstration of a "path of PTSD" coincident with the decades-old path of violence dramatically underscores the direct link between population burden of psychopathology and the experience of violent conflict. Persistent postconflict disruptions of social and physical context may explain some of the observed patterns.

Availability of essential health services in post-conflict Liberia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the availability of essential health services in northern Liberia in 2008, five years after the end of the civil war. METHODS: We carried out a population-based household survey in rural Nimba county and a health facility survey in clinics and hospitals nearest to study villages. We evaluated access to facilities that provide index essential services: artemisinin combination therapy for malaria, integrated management of childhood illness, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) counselling and testing, basic emergency obstetric care and treatment of mental illness. FINDINGS: Data were obtained from 1405 individuals (98% response rate) selected with a three-stage population-representative sampling method, and from 43 of Nimba county's 49 health facilities selected because of proximity to the study villages. Respondents travelled an average of 136 minutes to reach a health facility. All respondents could access malaria treatment at the nearest facility and 55.9% could access HIV testing. Only 26.8%, 14.5%, and 12.1% could access emergency obstetric care, integrated management of child illness and mental health services, respectively. CONCLUSION: Although there has been progress in providing basic services, rural Liberians still have limited access to life-saving health care. The reasons for the disparities in the services available to the population are technical and political. More frequently available services (HIV testing, malaria treatment) were less complex to implement and represented diseases favoured by bilateral and multilateral health sector donors. Systematic investments in the health system are required to ensure that health services respond to current and future health priorities.

Availability of essential health services in post-conflict Liberia

Objective:To assess the availability of essential health services in northern Liberia in 2008; five years after the end of the civil war. Methods We carried out a population-based household survey in rural Nimba county and a health facility survey in clinics and hospitals nearest to study villages. We evaluated access to facilities that provide index essential services: artemisinin combination therapy for malaria; integrated management of childhood illness; human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) counselling and testing; basic emergency obstetric care and treatment of mental illness. Findings Data were obtained from 1405 individuals (98response rate) selected with a three-stage population- representative sampling method; and from 43 of Nimba county's 49 health facilities selected because of proximity to the study villages. Respondents travelled an average of 136 minutes to reach a health facility. All respondents could access malaria treatment at the nearest facility and 55.9could access HIV testing. Only 26.8; 14.5; and 12.1could access emergency obstetric care; integrated management of child illness and mental health services; respectively. Conclusion Although there has been progress in providing basic services; rural Liberians still have limited access to life-saving health care. The reasons for the disparities in the services available to the population are technical and political. More frequently available services (HIV testing; malaria treatment) were less complex to implement and represented diseases favoured by bilateral and multilateral health sector donors. Systematic investments in the health system are required to ensure that health services respond to current and future health priorities