Resistance strategies and attitude certainty in persuasion: bolstering vs. counterarguing.

Introduction: Although resistance to persuasion has been of interest in psychology, relatively little research has examined how different resistance strategies can affect the strength-related features of attitudes. The current research presents a metacognitive account of two resistance strategies and their effect on attitude certainty and intentions. Specifically, we examine how the strategies of counterarguing and bolstering can differentially affect attitude certainty and intentions to act on the attitude under attack. Methods: In two experiments, we implemented a 2(Perceived Thought Type: bolster vs. counterargue) x 2(Perceived Argument Quality: weak vs. strong) between-participants design. Participants read weak or strong arguments about a counterattitudinal topic. After reporting their thoughts in response to the message topic, participants received bogus feedback regarding the nature of their thoughts (i.e., bolstering or counterarguing). Following the feedback, participants reported their attitudes and attitude certainty. Results: In Experiment 1 (N =241), participants' thoughts perceived as counterarguments elicited attitude certainty that was more sensitive to the quality of the attacking information than when thoughts were perceived as bolstering one's opinion. Experiment 2 (N = 287) replicated the effect with a different topic and demonstrated a similar pattern on intentions to act on the attacked attitude. Discussion: The research demonstrates that two relatively thoughtful strategies, bolstering and counterarguing, can play an important role in attitude certainty and intentions following a persuasion attempt.

Values and attitude certainty: The case for attitude clarity and correctness.

Three studies examined how the perception that one's attitudes are based in values affects attitude clarity and correctness. Specifically, perceiving that one's attitude is based in important values increases attitude clarity (the subjective sense that one knows one's attitude) but not attitude correctness (the subjective sense that the attitude is correct). To test this, participants read a counterattitudinal message and were given feedback about the basis of their attitude. Relative to participants who learned that their attitudes were weakly based in values, participants who were told that their attitudes were strongly based in values reported greater attitude clarity than correctness (Study 1). Similarly, increases in attitude clarity from having an attitude based in values increased the perception that participants effortfully processed the message (Studies 2 and 3), the belief that participants more successfully resisted the message, and participants' intentions to act on the attitude.

The Interplay Between Absolute Language and Moral Reasoning on Endorsement of Moral Foundations.

Morality - the subjective sense that humans discern between right and wrong - plays a ubiquitous role in everyday life. Deontological reasoning conceptualizes moral decision-making as rigid, such that many moral choices are forbidden or required. Not surprisingly, the language used in measures of deontological reasoning tends to be rigid, including phrases such as "always" and "never." Two studies (N = 553) drawn from two different populations used commonly used measures of moral reasoning and measures of morality to examine the link between individual differences in deontological reasoning and language on the endorsement of moral foundations. Participants low on deontological reasoning generally showed less endorsement for moral principles when extreme language was used in the measures (relative to less extreme language).

Think Unique: Perceptions of Uniqueness Increases Resistance to Persuasion and Attitude-Intention Relations.

The present research examines whether the perceived uniqueness of one's thoughts and salience of uniqueness motivations can influence attitude strength and resistance. Participants who rated their thoughts as relatively unique formed attitudes that showed greater correspondence with behavioral intentions to act on the attitude (Study 1). In Study 2, participants who recalled a previous purchase motivated by the desire to be unique (versus to fit in) after generating message counterarguments were less persuaded (more resistant) and reported greater willingness to act on their (negative) attitude. Moreover, attitudes mediated the effect of the purchase manipulation on intentions to act on the attitude.

Effects of a Mindful Rational Living Intervention on the Experience of Destructive Emotions.

The objective of this study was to measure the effects of a 90-day mindful rational living (MRL) program on the experience of destructive emotions-anger, anxiety, depression, guilt-among a normal population in a pilot trial. The MRL program combines mindfulness meditation techniques with rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) strategies. Participants were 17 adults who completed the MRL program. Participants completed pre- and post-intervention assessments, which included scales measuring anger, anxiety, depression, guilt, rumination, shame, and subjective happiness. As hypothesized, participants showed significant decreases in anger, rumination, anxiety, depression, and shame after participating in the MRL program. There were no significant increases in subjective happiness. Findings from this pilot study provide preliminary support for the potential utility of interventions that combine mindfulness meditation with REBT strategies and can be used as the basis of future studies.

Medication Adherence in 13- to 24-Year-Old Youth Living With HIV.

Despite advances in HIV medicine, adherence presents as a barrier to effective treatment for youth. We designed this study to assess medication knowledge, adherence, and factors affecting adherence in youth with HIV. Participants were 72 youth ages 13 to 24 years with perinatally or behaviorally acquired HIV. Demographic data were collected and a self-report adherence interview was administered. Interviews were audio-recorded to allow for qualitative data analysis. Self-reported adherence varied depending on the framing of questions, with participants reporting greater adherence when asked how many doses they had missed within the past 7 days compared to results from a 7-day recall interview. At least 74% of the sample said they sometimes forgot to take their medication. A taxonomic approach to the qualitative analysis revealed internal and external facilitators and barriers to adherence. Findings suggest a need for education and provider support to include strategies to improve adherence.

Decisional capacity among youth with HIV: results from the MacArthur Competence Tool for Treatment.

We assessed the decisional capacity (DC) of 72 youth with HIV, ages 13-24, using the MacArthur Competence Tool for Treatment, a structured interview that assesses DC along the following dimensions: understanding, appreciation, reasoning, and the ability to express a choice. Using previously established cutoff scores, results suggested 100% of youth were competent in the area of appreciation, but only 62% and 60% were competent in the areas of understanding and reasoning, respectively. Additional descriptive analyses reveal more detailed information regarding specific strengths and weaknesses within each of the dimensions of decisional capacity. These findings have important implications for health literacy initiatives, medical education, and treatment for youth with HIV, and support the need for adherence and secondary prevention interventions that include a decisional capacity component.