Hot, Humid Air Decontamination of Aircraft Confirmed That High Temperature and High Humidity Are Critical for Inactivation of Infectious, Enveloped Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) Virus.

Aims: To develop infectious (live/dead) enveloped virus test indicators and response surface methodology (RSM) models that evaluate survival of an enveloped ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus on contaminated aircraft materials after exposure to hot, humid air (HHA). Methods and Results: Enveloped RNA bacteriophage Phi6 (Φ6) was dried on wiring insulation, aircraft performance coating (APC), polypropylene, and nylon at ≥ 8 log10 plaque-forming units (PFU) test coupon-1. Only 2.4 log10 inactivation was measured on APC at 70°Celsius (°C), 5% relative humidity (RH) after 24 h. In contrast, HHA RSM models showed a 90% probability of a 7 log10 inactivation at ≥63°C, 90% RH after 1 h, and decontamination kinetics were similar across different materials. HHA decontamination of C-130 and C-17 aircraft showed >7 log10 and ≥5.9 log10 inactivation of enveloped virus on 100 and 110 test indicators, respectively, with a 1-h treatment, excluding ramp-up and ramp-down times. Conclusions: Enveloped RNA virus test indicators were successfully developed, lab tested for HHA decontamination, analyzed for RSM, and field-tested in aircraft demonstrations. Significance and Impact of the Study: The utility of HHA decontamination was demonstrated after inactivating enveloped RNA virus on aircraft with a 1-h HHA treatment within aircraft temperature and RH limits.

Targeted Enrichment for Pathogen Detection and Characterization in Three Felid Species.

Traditional diagnostic assays often lack sensitivity and can be difficult to multiplex across many pathogens. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) can overcome some of these problems but has limited application in the detection of low-copy-number pathogens in complex samples. Targeted genome capture (TGC) utilizes oligonucleotide probes to enrich specific nucleic acids in heterogeneous extracts and can therefore increase the proportion of NGS reads for low-abundance targets. While earlier studies have demonstrated the utility of this technology for detection of novel pathogens in human clinical samples, the capacity and practicality of TGC-NGS in a veterinary diagnostic setting have not yet been evaluated. Here we report the use of TGC-NGS assays for the detection and characterization of diverse feline pathogen taxa. We detected 31 pathogens comprising nine pathogen taxa in 28 felid samples analyzed. This included 20 pathogens detected via traditional PCR and 11 additional pathogens that had not been previously detected in the same samples. Most of the pathogens detected were sequenced at sufficient breadth and depth to confidently classify them at the species or subspecies level. Target nucleic acids were enriched from a low of 58-fold to 56 million-fold relative to host nucleic acids. Despite the promising performance of these assays, a number of pathogens detected by conventional PCR or serology were not isolated by TGC-NGS, suggesting that further validation is required before this technology can be used in lieu of quality-controlled standard assays. We conclude that TGC-NGS offers great potential as a broad multiplex pathogen characterization assay in veterinary diagnostic and research settings.

A role for attention during wilderness navigation: Comparing effects of BDNF, KIBRA, and CHRNA4.

OBJECTIVE: To better understand what influences interindividual differences in ability to navigate in the wilderness, we hypothesized that better performance would be seen in (a) BDNF (rs6265) Val/Val homozygotes increased use of a spatial strategy, (b) KIBRA rs17070145 T/T homozygotes superior episodic memory, (c) CHRNA4 (rs1044396) T allele carriers better ability to focus visuospatial attention. METHOD: Military cadets (n = 382) genotyped for BDNF, KIBRA, and CHRNA4 SNPs used a map and compass to navigate in unmarked woods. Participants completed a morning course within 3.0 km and an afternoon course within 7.0 km. RESULTS: Success or failure in finding each point was analyzed in a logistic regression model with KIBRA, BDNF, and CHRNA4 genotypes as fixed effects. For the morning course, the adjusted odds ratio for the effect of KIBRA T/T over KIBRA C/C was 2.58 (95% CI of 1.31, 5.06) demonstrating a statistical benefit of the KIBRA T/T genotype over individuals with KIBRA C/C genotype. BDNF did not have an independent association with navigational success. For the afternoon course, the adjusted odds ratio for the effect of CHRNA4 C/T over C/C was 1.67 (95% CI of 1.24, 2.25) demonstrating a statistical benefit of CHRNA4 T allele carriers over the C/C genotype. CONCLUSIONS: Ability to navigate in the wilderness benefits less from sense of direction (BDNF and Santa Barbara Sense of Direction) and more from episodic memory (KIBRA) in the first course and heightened ability to focus attention (CHRNA4) after experience in the 2nd course. (PsycINFO Database Record

Dose-Response Modeling for Inhalational Anthrax in Rabbits Following Single or Multiple Exposures.

There is a need to advance our ability to characterize the risk of inhalational anthrax following a low-dose exposure. The exposure scenario most often considered is a single exposure that occurs during an attack. However, long-term daily low-dose exposures also represent a realistic exposure scenario, such as what may be encountered by people occupying areas for longer periods. Given this, the objective of the current work was to model two rabbit inhalational anthrax dose-response data sets. One data set was from single exposures to aerosolized Bacillus anthracis Ames spores. The second data set exposed rabbits repeatedly to aerosols of B. anthracis Ames spores. For the multiple exposure data the cumulative dose (i.e., the sum of the individual daily doses) was used for the model. Lethality was the response for both. Modeling was performed using Benchmark Dose Software evaluating six models: logprobit, loglogistic, Weibull, exponential, gamma, and dichotomous-Hill. All models produced acceptable fits to either data set. The exponential model was identified as the best fitting model for both data sets. Statistical tests suggested there was no significant difference between the single exposure exponential model results and the multiple exposure exponential model results, which suggests the risk of disease is similar between the two data sets. The dose expected to cause 10% lethality was 15,600 inhaled spores and 18,200 inhaled spores for the single exposure and multiple exposure exponential dose-response model, respectively, and the 95% lower confidence intervals were 9,800 inhaled spores and 9,200 inhaled spores, respectively.

Evaluation of Inhaled Versus Deposited Dose Using the Exponential Dose-Response Model for Inhalational Anthrax in Nonhuman Primate, Rabbit, and Guinea Pig.

The application of the exponential model is extended by the inclusion of new nonhuman primate (NHP), rabbit, and guinea pig dose-lethality data for inhalation anthrax. Because deposition is a critical step in the initiation of inhalation anthrax, inhaled doses may not provide the most accurate cross-species comparison. For this reason, species-specific deposition factors were derived to translate inhaled dose to deposited dose. Four NHP, three rabbit, and two guinea pig data sets were utilized. Results from species-specific pooling analysis suggested all four NHP data sets could be pooled into a single NHP data set, which was also true for the rabbit and guinea pig data sets. The three species-specific pooled data sets could not be combined into a single generic mammalian data set. For inhaled dose, NHPs were the most sensitive (relative lowest LD50) species and rabbits the least. Improved inhaled LD50 s proposed for use in risk assessment are 50,600, 102,600, and 70,800 inhaled spores for NHP, rabbit, and guinea pig, respectively. Lung deposition factors were estimated for each species using published deposition data from Bacillus spore exposures, particle deposition studies, and computer modeling. Deposition was estimated at 22%, 9%, and 30% of the inhaled dose for NHP, rabbit, and guinea pig, respectively. When the inhaled dose was adjusted to reflect deposited dose, the rabbit animal model appears the most sensitive with the guinea pig the least sensitive species.

Modeling low-dose mortality and disease incubation period of inhalational anthrax in the rabbit.

There is a need to advance our ability to conduct credible human risk assessments for inhalational anthrax associated with exposure to a low number of bacteria. Combining animal data with computational models of disease will be central in the low-dose and cross-species extrapolations required in achieving this goal. The objective of the current work was to apply and advance the competing risks (CR) computational model of inhalational anthrax where data was collected from NZW rabbits exposed to aerosols of Ames strain Bacillus anthracis. An initial aim was to parameterize the CR model using high-dose rabbit data and then conduct a low-dose extrapolation. The CR low-dose attack rate was then compared against known low-dose rabbit data as well as the low-dose curve obtained when the entire rabbit dose-response data set was fitted to an exponential dose-response (EDR) model. The CR model predictions demonstrated excellent agreement with actual low-dose rabbit data. We next used a modified CR model (MCR) to examine disease incubation period (the time to reach a fever >40 °C). The MCR model predicted a germination period of 14.5h following exposure to a low spore dose, which was confirmed by monitoring spore germination in the rabbit lung using PCR, and predicted a low-dose disease incubation period in the rabbit between 14.7 and 16.8 days. Overall, the CR and MCR model appeared to describe rabbit inhalational anthrax well. These results are discussed in the context of conducting laboratory studies in other relevant animal models, combining the CR/MCR model with other computation models of inhalational anthrax, and using the resulting information towards extrapolating a low-dose response prediction for man.

Inhalational anthrax (Ames aerosol) in naïve and vaccinated New Zealand rabbits: characterizing the spread of bacteria from lung deposition to bacteremia.

There is a need to better understand inhalational anthrax in relevant animal models. This understanding could aid risk assessment, help define therapeutic windows, and provide a better understanding of disease. The aim here was to characterize and quantify bacterial deposition and dissemination in rabbits following exposure to single high aerosol dose (> 100 LD(50)) of Bacillus anthracis (Ames) spores immediately following exposure through 36 h. The primary goal of collecting the data was to support investigators in developing computational models of inhalational anthrax disease. Rabbits were vaccinated prior to exposure with the human vaccine (Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed, AVA) or were sham-vaccinated, and were then exposed in pairs (one sham and one AVA) so disease kinetics could be characterized in equally-dosed hosts where one group is fully protected and is able to clear the infection (AVA-vaccinated), while the other is susceptible to disease, in which case the bacteria are able to escape containment and replicate uncontrolled (sham-vaccinated rabbits). Between 4-5% of the presented aerosol dose was retained in the lung of sham- and AVA-vaccinated rabbits as measured by dilution plate analysis of homogenized lung tissue or bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. After 6 and 36 h, >80% and >96%, respectively, of the deposited spores were no longer detected in BAL, with no detectable difference between sham- or AVA-vaccinated rabbits. Thereafter, differences between the two groups became noticeable. In sham-vaccinated rabbits the bacteria were detected in the tracheobronchial lymph nodes (TBLN) 12 h post-exposure and in the circulation at 24 h, a time point which was also associated with dramatic increases in vegetative CFU in the lung tissue of some animals. In all sham-vaccinated rabbits, bacteria increased in both TBLN and blood through 36 h at which point in time some rabbits succumbed to disease. In contrast, AVA-vaccinated rabbits showed small numbers of CFU in TBLN between 24 and 36 h post-exposure with small numbers of bacteria in the circulation only at 24 h post-exposure. These results characterize and quantify disease progression in naïve rabbits following aerosol administration of Ames spores which may be useful in a number of different research applications, including developing quantitative models of infection for use in human inhalational anthrax risk assessment.

Resistance of Francisella novicida to fosmidomycin associated with mutations in the glycerol-3-phosphate transporter.

The methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway is essential in most prokaryotes and some lower eukaryotes but absent from human cells, and is a validated target for antimicrobial drug development. The formation of MEP is catalyzed by 1-deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR). MEP pathway genes have been identified in many category A and B biothreat agents, including Francisella tularensis, which causes the zoonosis tularemia. Fosmidomycin (Fos) inhibits purified Francisella DXR. This compound also inhibits the growth of F. tularensis NIH B38, F. novicida and F. tularensis subsp. holarctica LVS bacteria. Related compounds such as FR900098 and the lipophilic prodrug of FR900098 (compound 1) have been developed to improve the bioavailability of these DXR inhibitors. In performing disk-inhibition assays with these compounds, we observed breakthrough colonies of F. novicida in the presence of Fos, suggesting spontaneous development of Fos resistance (Fos(R)). Fos(R) bacteria had decreased sensitivity to both Fos and FR900098. The two most likely targets for the development of mutants would be the DXR enzyme itself or the glycerol-3-phosphate transporter (GlpT) that allows entry of Fos into the bacteria. Sensitivity of Fos(R)F. novicida bacteria to compound 1 was not abated suggesting that spontaneous resistance is not due to mutation of DXR. We thus predicted that the glpT transporter may be mutated leading to this resistant phenotype. Supporting this, transposon insertion mutants at the glpT locus were also found to be resistant to Fos. DNA sequencing of four different spontaneous Fos(R) colonies demonstrated a variety of deletions in the glpT coding region. The overall frequency of Fos(R) mutations in F. novicida was determined to be 6.3 × 10(-8). Thus we conclude that one mechanism of resistance of F. novicida to Fos is caused by mutations in GlpT. This is the first description of spontaneous mutations in Francisella leading to Fos(R).

Bacillus anthracis interacts with plasmin(ogen) to evade C3b-dependent innate immunity.

The causative agent of anthrax, Bacillus anthracis, is capable of circumventing the humoral and innate immune defense of the host and modulating the blood chemistry in circulation to initiate a productive infection. It has been shown that the pathogen employs a number of strategies against immune cells using secreted pathogenic factors such as toxins. However, interference of B. anthracis with the innate immune system through specific interaction of the spore surface with host proteins such as the complement system has heretofore attracted little attention. In order to assess the mechanisms by which B. anthracis evades the defense system, we employed a proteomic analysis to identify human serum proteins interacting with B. anthracis spores, and found that plasminogen (PLG) is a major surface-bound protein. PLG efficiently bound to spores in a lysine- and exosporium-dependent manner. We identified α-enolase and elongation factor tu as PLG receptors. PLG-bound spores were capable of exhibiting anti-opsonic properties by cleaving C3b molecules in vitro and in rabbit bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, resulting in a decrease in macrophage phagocytosis. Our findings represent a step forward in understanding the mechanisms involved in the evasion of innate immunity by B. anthracis through recruitment of PLG resulting in the enhancement of anti-complement and anti-opsonization properties of the pathogen.

Analyses of gene flow among populations of deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) at sites near hantavirus pulmonary syndrome case-patient residences.

Gene flow and potential for Sin Nombre virus (SNV) trafficking of the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) was studied in Delta and Mesa counties of western Colorado (USA). The study areas included Grand Mesa and surrounding grazing and agricultural areas. This area has several natural potential barriers to rodent gene flow, including rivers, cliffs, and mountains. Ten study sites were utilized in a spatially nested design ranging from 0.65-81 km apart; four of these sites were at or near human hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) case-patient residences. One HPS case occurred on the north side of Grand Mesa in 1993; the other three (two confirmed, one presumptive) occurred on the south side of Grand Mesa between 1999-2000. Blood and tissue samples were collected from each of 221 deer mice captured from 1999-2000. Blood samples were tested for IgG antibody to SNV. At least one deer mouse had antibody to SNV at nine of 10 sites. Genomic DNA was isolated from tissue samples and alleles at six microsatellite loci were amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Polymorphisms were resolved on denaturing polyacrylamide gels and visualized by silver staining. Traditional population genetic analyses of this study indicated moderate population subdivision among the populations surveyed, slight evidence of isolation by distance, and that the Gunnison River system may hinder gene flow in this area. Application of assignment tests indicated that approximately 73-85% of mice were assigned to their population of capture. Many of the misclassifications occurred among sites less than 1 km apart; however, some long-distance misclassifications were noted. Additionally, some misclassifications were noted among study sites on different sides of the Gunnison River system, indicating that the riparian corridor of this system may facilitate some gene flow. Overall, these data indicate that SNV trafficking is more likely at the local level, but some long-distance trafficking may be possible, especially where select habitat variables favor long-distance movements.

The midgut epithelium of aquatic arthropods: a critical target organ in environmental toxicology.

The midgut epithelium of aquatic arthropods is emerging as an important and toxicologically relevant organ system for monitoring environmental pollution. The peritrophic matrix of aquatic arthropods, which is secreted by the midgut epithelium cells, is perturbed by copper or cadmium. Molecular biological studies have identified and characterized two midgut genes induced by heavy metals in the midgut epithelium. Many other metal-responsive genes (MRGs) await characterization. One of the MRGs codes for an intestinal mucin, which is critical for protecting the midgut from toxins and pathogens. Another codes for a tubulin gene, which is critical for structure and function of the midgut epithelial cells. Perturbation of expression of either gene could condition aquatic arthropod survivorship. Induction of these MRGs is a more sensitive and rapid indicator of heavy-metal pollution than biological assays. Characterization of genes induced by pollutants could provide mechanistic understanding of fundamental cellular responses to pollutants and insight into determinants of aquatic arthropod population genetic structure and survivorship in nature.