Ethical challenges during critical phases of the COVID-19 pandemic: An interpretive synthesis.

BACKGROUND: During the most critical phases of COVID-19 pandemic, dramatic situations were experienced in hospitals and care centers that nurses could hardly verbalize. Especially relevant were deep challenges related to terminal illness, situations of extreme sacrifice, as well as reflections on protective measures mixed with beliefs. We intend to analyze which problems had the greatest impact on professionals. AIM: The aim is to explore the ultimate basis for action when making decisions and the orientation of their behavior in the face of moral conflicts. METHOD: The methodological strategy is an interpretive synthesis. Narrative review of academic articles that analyzed ethical dilemmas during the pandemic was carried out by searching five databases (Pubmed, Scopus, Psycinfo, CINHAL, and WOS) between January 2020 and December 2022. Finally, 43 articles were selected. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS: Ethical requirements were respected in all study phases. RESULTS: The reading and review of the 43 articles initiated the first phase of inductive coding which resulted in 14 initial sub-themes. Based on this structure, a second phase of coding was carried out, giving rise to six categories or emerging themes. To facilitate the process of identifying the central category, the authors agreed to carry out a phase of synthesis, grouping the six themes into three meta-themes: the identification and acceptance of human vulnerability; the discovery of positive paradigms in traumatic situations in society; the prevalence of the common good over the particular interest, as the core structure of any society. CONCLUSION: The study has shown the need to consider healthcare benevolence as a new dimension of health care upon global vulnerability. Responsibility is required to ensure the well-being of a global society, prioritizing the common good over particular interests and building solutions on solid moral structures. A new ethical landscape is essential, starting with a humanistic curricular training of all healthcare professionals.

Evaluation of relational factor in patient satisfaction with the treatment received by dental students.

INTRODUCTION: The study focused on the importance of the relational factor and empathy in the general satisfaction of patients for the treatment received by university dental students. To achieve this objective, a tool capable of evaluating the most humanistic dimensions (empathy, kindness, trust) in the development of dental treatment has been designed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A review of the literature was carried out and, based on its findings, a questionnaire was designed to assess patient satisfaction with the dental student's empathy. It consisted of 20 questions and was completed by 80 patients. The questionnaire was subjected to a validation process using the Delphi method (content validity) and psychometric analysis (construct validity), through a principal components analysis (PCA). RESULTS: The results of the PCA showed the existence of four components that suggest grouping the 20 questions into three blocks with a sequential structure, in which the questions would describe the patient's satisfaction throughout their treatment: reception and explanation of the treatment; development and progress of treatment; and expectations and completion of treatment. In each of these blocks, satisfaction was determined by a specific humanistic dimension: communication, trust and benevolence. CONCLUSION: The validated questionnaire is an effective tool to analyse the relational factors that determine patient satisfaction in a treatment. Furthermore, the analysis of the questionnaire suggests that communication, trust and benevolence are elements that acquire singular importance throughout the care process. This analysis is essential for the acquisition of humanistic skills by future professionals and to optimize the dentist-patient relationship.

Analysis in the ethical decision-making of dental, nurse and physiotherapist students, through case-based learning.

INTRODUCTION: Training in ethical competencies is perceived with special interest among the objectives of health education. The dimensions of the person such as integrity, autonomy and dignity influence the choice of interventions, but the different specialties of the health sciences conceive these dimensions with different perspectives depending on the clinical setting. These divergences can be detected during the first years of undergraduate studies, and it is important to know the professional bias and its possible causes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A procedure was developed through case-based learning (CBL) to assess various characteristics of decision-making during the early stages of student training. A semi-quantitative method was designed based on the narrative responses of a case with ethical implications in the field of gender violence. The method was applied to 294 undergraduate students in nursing (95), physiotherapy (109) and dentistry (90) from the Faculty of Health Sciences of a Spanish university. A frequency analysis of the narrative responses of the students to the proposed case was carried out, using the chi-square test to determine any association between the variables studied: gender, specialty and ethical knowledge. RESULTS: Four types of response categories were detected, as a result of combining the personal conversation, report to legal authority or require assistance of other teams. The most common option in dentists is conversation only, while physical therapists include the assistance of other teams. In nursing, a balance is observed between both possibilities. The results show that student responses differ significantly among specialties and also differ significantly according to test scores on ethical knowledge. However, no significant differences were found between the responses provided by men and women. CONCLUSION: Most of the health sciences students highly valued their own capacity for dialogue and reflection to approach situations with complex ethical dimensions. We consider that case-based learning (CBL), in combination with narrative analysis is a valid means of evaluating the professional ethical competencies of students in health sciences careers applied to a common goal.

Analysis of moral reasoning in dentistry students through case-based learning (CBL).

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to develop a tool to analyze the ethical dimensions during dental students' decision making, by using case-based learning (CBL). METHODS: Five clinical scenarios involving ethical aspects addressing different moral dilemmas were selected. The cases were then administered to students during a course on ethics, and the students responded using a narrative technique. To analyze the responses, a criterion inspired by Kohlberg's theory of moral development was used. Subsequently, the data were analyzed statistically, and possible associations between the answers and other variables, such as the student's gender and theoretical knowledge of ethics, were evaluated. RESULTS: A total of 260 students participated (182 women and 78 men), and 1300 narratives were analyzed. The reliability of the construct, as tested by the Cronbach's alpha and the homogeneity index, was acceptable (0.7). The validity of the construct was also assessed, suggesting a component analysis. The descriptive analysis suggests a certain tendency to solve moral problems by referring to established norms and laws. Furthermore, the correlation anaylysis suggests the interrelation between dimensions linked to patient integrity and respect for the truth, even though this conclusion is not reflected in the component analysis, which only detects a generic component of moral sensitivity. No significant differences by gender were found in the narratives, nor a strong correlation of the responses with theoretical knowledge on ethics. CONCLUSION: CBL through the narrative method on ethical dilemmas is an effective tool for assessing dental students' moral competencies and their possible interactions with other variables.

Moral dilemmas involving anthropological and ethical dimensions in healthcare curriculum.

BACKGROUND: Currently a variety of novel scenarios have appeared within nursing practice such as confidentiality of a patient victim of abuse, justice in insolvent patients, poorly informed consent delivery, non-satisfactory medicine outputs, or the possibility to reject a recommended treatment. These scenarios presuppose skills that are not usually acquired during the degree. Thus, the implementation of teaching approaches that promote the acquisition of these skills in the nursing curriculum is increasingly relevant. OBJECTIVE: The article analyzes an academic model which integrates in the curriculum a series of specific theoretical concepts together with practical skills to acquire the basic ethic assessment competency. RESEARCH DESIGN: The project includes designing two subjects, General Anthropology and Ethics-Bioethics, with an applied approach in the nursing curriculum. The sequential structure of the curriculum in both subjects is constituted by three learning domains (theoretical, practical, and communicative) with different educational strategies. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS: No significant ethical considerations as this is a discussion paper. FINDINGS: The model was structured from the anthropology's concepts and decision-making process, applied to real situations. The structure of the three domains theoretical-practical-communicative is present in each session. DISCUSSION: It is observed that theoretical domain fosters the capacity for critical analysis and subsequent ability to judge diverse situations. The practical domain reflected two significant difficulties: students' resistance to internalizing moral problems and the tendency to superficial criticism. The communicative domain has frequently shown that the conflicting points are in the principles to be applied. CONCLUSION: We conclude that this design achieves its objectives and may provide future nursing professionals with ethical competences especially useful in healthcare practice. The three domains of the presented scheme are associated with the same process used in decision making at individual levels, where the exercise of clinical prudence acquires particular relevance.

Análisis ético del principio de vulnerabilidad sanitaria / Ethical analysis of the principle of health vulnerability

El concepto de vulnerabilidad ha determinado múltiples actuaciones en el ámbito sanitario. En los últimos años este concepto ha originado diversos modelos holísticos que oscilan entre considerar la vulnerabilidad como un elemento descriptivo de una situación accidental hasta su consideración como principio orientador de la práctica médica. Se percibe la necesidad de profundizar en este fenómeno desde el punto de vista de la filosofía moral. La reflexión moral revela un desequilibrio en el binomio autonomía-dependencia, generando soluciones opuestas en la toma de decisiones. Aunque la autonomía ha fundamentado hasta ahora gran parte de la acción médica, la dependencia plantea una nueva óptica sobre la vulnerabilidad, ra-dicada en la ética del cuidado. Esta perspectiva permite superar la consideración de la vulnerabilidad como una característica, un accidente o un principio. La vulnerabilidad aparece como una dimensión intrínseca del ser humano que, lejos de alterar su dignidad o su autonomía, permite evidenciar la necesidad de los otros para alcanzar su plenitud

The concept of vulnerability has determined multiple actions in the health field. In recent years, this concept has originated various holistic models that oscillate between considering vulnerability as a descriptive element of an accidental situation until it is considered a guiding principle of medical practice. The need to deepen this phenomenon from the point of view of moral philosophy is perceived. The moral reflection reveals an imbalance in the binomial autonomy-dependence, generating opposite solutions in decision-making. Although autonomy has so far supported much of the medical action, the dependency raises a new perspective on vulnerability, rooted in the ethics of care. This perspective allows us to overcome the consideration of vulnerability as a characteristic, an accident or a principle. Vulnerability appears as an intrinsic dimension of the human being that, far from altering its dignity or autonomy, makes it possible to demonstrate the need of others to reach their fullness

[Ethical analysis of the principle of health vulnerability]. / Análisis ético del principio de vulnerabilidad sanitaria.

The concept of vulnerability has determined multiple actions in the health field. In recent years, this concept has originated various holistic models that oscillate between considering vulnerability as a descriptive element of an accidental situation until it is considered a guiding principle of medical practice. The need to deepen this phenomenon from the point of view of moral philosophy is perceived. The moral reflection reveals an imbalance in the binomial autonomy-dependence, generating opposite solutions in decision-making. Although autonomy has so far supported much of the medical action, the dependency raises a new perspective on vulnerability, rooted in the ethics of care. This perspective allows us to overcome the consideration of vulnerability as a characteristic, an accident or a principle. Vulnerability appears as an intrinsic dimension of the human being that, far from altering its dignity or autonomy, makes it posible to demonstrate the need of others to reach their fullness.

Ethical Challenges of Germline Genetic Enhancement.

The new reproductive technologies have opened the door to different processes of germline genetic enhancement by which the characteristics of an individual according to the interests of the agents involved could be selected during its gestation. Although the initiative is apparently oriented towards developing individuals that would excel in society, critical voices raise the concerns about that this approach would generate and need for a reflection on the ethical, social and legal implications of these techniques and their implementation in society. We reviewed the literature about these issues throughout their historical records to date, focusing on the moral arguments and non-clinical aspects that affect the legal and social environment. We have observed various trends of thought with divergent positions (proactive, preventive, and regulatory) as well as a large number of articles that try to reconcile the different approaches. This review illustrates a series of concepts from the ethics and philosophy fields which are frequently used in studies that evaluate the ethical implications of germline genetic enhancement, such as dignity, benefit, autonomy, and identity. In addition, amongst the many unresolved controversies surrounding genetic enhancement, we identify procreative beneficence, genetic disassociation, gender selection, the value of disability, embryo chimerization, and the psychosocial inequality of potentially enhanced individuals as crucial. We also develop possible scenarios for future debate. We consider especially important the definition and specification of three aspects which are essential for the deployment of new reproductive technologies: the moral status of the embryo undergoing enhancement, the legal status of the enhanced individual, and the responsibility of the agents executing the enhancement. Finally, we propose the precautionary principle as a means to navigate ethical uncertainties.

Moral enhancement, at the peak of pharmacology and at the limit of ethics.

The debate over the improvement of moral capacity or moral enhancement through pharmacology has gained momentum in the last decade as a result of advances in neuroscience. These advances have led to the discovery and allowed the alteration of patterns of human behavior, and have permitted direct interventions on the neuronal structure of behavior. In recent years, this analysis has deepened regarding the anthropological foundations of morality and the reasons that would justify the acceptance or rejection of such technology. We present a review of proposals for pharmacological interventions directed directly towards moral enhancement. In addition, we identify the ethical dilemmas that such interventions may generate, as well as the moral assessment of the authors of these studies. There is a moderate consensus on the risks of any intervention on the intimate structure of the human condition, its autonomy and identity, but there are large differences in explaining the reasons for this concern and especially in justifying such interventions. These findings show that it is necessary to investigate the moral assessment of authors and the ethical dimension within the field of pharmacology in order to identify future trends.

Análise da ética de princípios, 40 anos depois / An analysis of the ethics of principles, 40 years later / Análisis de la ética de principios, 40 años después

Resumen La Bioética de principios se ha convertido en un paradigma de la valoración moral en la práctica clínica. La estructuración en cuatro principios (autonomía, beneficencia, no maleficencia y justicia), elaborada por Beauchamp y Childress hace casi 40 años, trata de facilitar la toma de decisiones en un contexto universal. Aun así, este objetivo genera una serie de dudas que afectan profundamente a la praxis ética de la medicina y a la teoría moral. Por ello, se hace imprescindible un análisis crítico de los principios de la Bioética, su fundamentación teórica y su aplicabilidad, a la vista de los resultados en estos últimos decenios.

Abstract Bioethics of principles has become a paradigm of moral evaluation in clinical practice. This model is based on four principles (autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence and justice), as defined by Beauchamp and Childress almost 40 years ago. The four principles try to facilitate decision-making in a universal context. However, this objective generates a series of questions that deeply affect the ethical practice of medicine and the moral theory. Therefore, a critical analysis of the bioethical principles, its theoretical foundation and its application, in view of the results in recent decades, is needed.

Resumo A Bioética dos princípios tornou-se paradigma de avaliação moral na prática clínica. A estruturação desse modelo em quatro princípios (autonomia, beneficência, não maleficência e justiça), desenvolvidos por Beauchamp e Childress há quase 40 anos, visa facilitar a tomada de decisão em contexto universal. No entanto, esse objetivo gera uma série de questões que afetam profundamente a prática ética da medicina e a teoria moral. Por essa razão, a análise crítica dos princípios da Bioética, sua fundamentação teórica e sua aplicabilidade, levando em consideração os resultados das últimas décadas, são essenciais.

A systematic review of the relationship factor between women and health professionals within the multivariant analysis of maternal satisfaction.

INTRODUCTION: personalised support provided to women by health professionals is one of the prime factors attaining women's satisfaction during pregnancy and childbirth. However the multifactorial nature of 'satisfaction' makes difficult to assess it. Statistical multivariate analysis may be an effective technique to obtain in depth quantitative evidence of the importance of this factor and its interaction with the other factors involved. This technique allows us to estimate the importance of overall satisfaction in its context and suggest actions for healthcare services. METHODS: systematic review of studies that quantitatively measure the personal relationship between women and healthcare professionals (gynecologists, obstetricians, nurse, midwifes, etc.) regarding maternity care satisfaction. The literature search focused on studies carried out between 1970 and 2014 that used multivariate analyses and included the woman-caregiver relationship as a factor of their analysis. RESULTS: twenty-four studies which applied various multivariate analysis tools to different periods of maternity care (antenatal, perinatal, post partum) were selected. The studies included discrete scale scores and questionnaires from women with low-risk pregnancies. The "personal relationship" factor appeared under various names: care received, personalised treatment, professional support, amongst others. The most common multivariate techniques used to assess the percentage of variance explained and the odds ratio of each factor were principal component analysis and logistic regression. DISCUSSION: the data, variables and factor analysis suggest that continuous, personalised care provided by the usual midwife and delivered within a family or a specialised setting, generates the highest level of satisfaction. In addition, these factors foster the woman's psychological and physiological recovery, often surpassing clinical action (e.g. medicalization and hospital organization) and/or physiological determinants (e.g. pain, pathologies, etc.).

El principio depprecaución y los límites en biomedicnna / The precutionaryy principle and limits in biomedicine / O pincípio de prrecaução e os limites em biomedicina

Los actuales avances en tecnología biomédica han alcanzado resultados hasta ahora inimaginables, tanto en la terapia de enfermedades como en el perfeccionamiento de la especie humana. Es necesario plantearse si el deseo de perfección posee límites precisos, y si es necesario aplicar un principio limitador que garantice el respeto de la naturaleza humana e impida la asunción de riesgos que puedan afectar a generaciones futuras. El principio de precaución se presenta como elemento racionalizador frente a cualquier intento de un progreso ciego o despótico. Pero dicho principio puede derivar hacia concepciones confusas cuando se desliga de su componente constitutivo: la virtud de la prudencia.

Current advances in biomedical technology have achieved previously unimaginable results in terms of both disease therapy and improvement of the human species. Accordingly, it is crucial to consider whether the desire for perfection has specific limits, and if it is necessary apply a limiting principle to ensure respect for human nature and to prevent risk-taking that might affect future generations. The precautionary principle is presented as a rationalizing element against any attempt by blind or despotic progress. However, this principle can lead to confusing concepts when it becomes separated from its basic component: the virtue of prudence.

Os atuais avanços em tecnologia biomédica têm atingido resultados até agora não imagináveis, tanto na terapia de doenças quanto no aperfeiçoamento da espécie humana. Nesse contexto, é necessário questionar se o desejo de aperfeiçoamento possui limites precisos e se é necessário aplicar um princípio limitador que garanta o respeito da natureza humana e impeça a assunção de riscos que possam afetar gerações futuras. O princípio de precaução apresenta-se como elemento racionalizador ante qualquer tentativa de um progresso cego ou despótico. Porém, esse princípio pode derivar a concepções confusas quando se desliga de seu componente constitutivo: a virtude da prudência.