CD8(+) T-cell immunity against cancer-testis antigens develops following allogeneic stem cell transplantation and reveals a potential mechanism for the graft-versus-leukemia effect.

BACKGROUND: Allogeneic stem cell transplantation is associated with a powerful 'graft-versus-leukemia' effect that is generally considered to result from an alloreactive T-cell immune response. However, disease remission can also be observed after syngeneic transplantation and we investigated whether a T-cell immune response to cancer-testis antigens can be detected in patients in the post-transplant period. DESIGN AND METHODS: The T-cell immune response against cancer-testis antigens was studied in a cohort of 41 patients who underwent allogeneic stem cell transplantation for the management of acute myeloid leukemia or multiple myeloma. The cytokine secretion assay was combined with magnetic selection to allow detection of an interferon-gamma-secreting T-cell response to a panel of cancer-testis antigen peptides. RESULTS: A cancer-testis antigen-specific CD8(+) T-cell immune response was observed in the peripheral blood of five patients with an average magnitude of 0.045% of the CD8(+) T-cell repertoire. Four of these patients had undergone reduced intensity conditioning transplantation with alemtuzumab for the treatment of acute myeloid leukemia and three remain in long-term remission. T-cell immunity was focused against peptides derived from MAGE proteins and was markedly increased within the bone marrow. CONCLUSIONS: Functional cancer-testis antigen-specific CD8(+) T-cell immune responses develop in the early period following reduced intensity allogeneic stem cell transplantation and are preferentially localized to bone marrow. These immune responses are likely to contribute to the cellular basis of the graft-versus-leukemia effect.

Dose-intensified treatment of Burkitt lymphoma and B-cell lymphoma unclassifiable, (with features intermediate between diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and Burkitt lymphoma) in young adults (<50 years): a comparison of two adapted BFM protocols.

The chemotherapy dose-intensity in two adapted German BFM paediatric protocols (BFM 90 and NHL 86) was compared in contemporaneously treated adults <50 years with Burkitt lymphoma and B-cell lymphoma unclassifiable, with features intermediate between diffuse large B-cell lymphoma and Burkitt lymphoma (collectively referred to as BL). In BFM 90, primary prophylaxis with Granulocyte-colony-stimulating factor was used, postinduction treatment was started at granulocytes > or =0.5 x 10(9)/L (> or =1.0 x 10(9)/L in NHL 86) with a higher mean methotrexate dose (2.9 g/m(2)/cycle, n = 23; 1.6 g/m(2)/cycle in NHL 86, n = 22, P < 0.001). Intervals between consecutive treatment-cycles were shorter in BFM 90 (P < 0.001) with no additional toxicity. However, the two-year failure-free survival with BFM 90 (82%) was similar to that achieved with NHL 86 (72%, P = 0.33). We conclude that BFM 90 enables safe intensification of therapy in young adults with BL compared to NHL 86, but registry-based studies are required to further evaluate the antineoplastic effects and cost-effectiveness of the two therapeutic approaches.

Secondary anchor polymorphism in the HA-1 minor histocompatibility antigen critically affects MHC stability and TCR recognition.

T cell recognition of minor histocompatibility antigens (mHags) underlies allogeneic immune responses that mediate graft-versus-host disease and the graft-versus-leukemia effect following stem cell transplantation. Many mHags derive from single amino acid polymorphisms in MHC-restricted epitopes, but our understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing mHag immunogenicity and recognition is incomplete. Here we examined antigenic presentation and T-cell recognition of HA-1, a prototypic autosomal mHag derived from single nucleotide dimorphism (HA-1(H) versus HA-1(R)) in the HMHA1 gene. The HA-1(H) peptide is restricted by HLA-A2 and is immunogenic in HA-1(R/R) into HA-1(H) transplants, while HA-1(R) has been suggested to be a "null allele" in terms of T cell reactivity. We found that proteasomal cleavage and TAP transport of the 2 peptides is similar and that both variants can bind to MHC. However, the His>Arg change substantially decreases the stability and affinity of HLA-A2 association, consistent with the reduced immunogenicity of the HA-1(R) variant. To understand these findings, we determined the structure of an HLA-A2-HA-1(H) complex to 1.3A resolution. Whereas His-3 is accommodated comfortably in the D pocket, incorporation of the lengthy Arg-3 is predicted to require local conformational changes. Moreover, a soluble TCR generated from HA-1(H)-specific T-cells bound HA-1(H) peptide with moderate affinity but failed to bind HA-1(R), indicating complete discrimination of HA-1 variants at the level of TCR/MHC interaction. Our results define the molecular mechanisms governing immunogenicity of HA-1, and highlight how single amino acid polymorphisms in mHags can critically affect both MHC association and TCR recognition.

CXCL10-CXCR3 interactions play an important role in the pathogenesis of acute graft-versus-host disease in the skin following allogeneic stem-cell transplantation.

Acute graft-versus-host disease (aGVHD) remains a serious complication following allogeneic stem-cell transplantation (SCT), and is mediated by infiltration of alloreactive donor T cells into recipient tissue. Chemokines and their receptors play a central role in controlling the recruitment of T cells into discrete tissue sites, and determine the clinical features of GVHD in murine models. In this study, we have analyzed the serum concentration of molecules that control leukocyte migration in serial samples from 34 patients following allogeneic SCT. The chemokine CXCL10 (IP-10) was significantly elevated (> 2-fold) in serum at the time of aGVHD. Because the ligand for CXCL10 is CXCR3, the number of CXCR3(+) T cells was determined in peripheral blood, but was not increased during episodes of GVHD. To investigate the role of chemokines in the recruitment of T cells to the anatomic site of GVHD, skin biopsies were stained for CXCL10 and CXCR3 expression. CXCL10 expression was observed in the basal keratinocytes of the epidermis in patients with GVHD together with positive staining for CXCR3 on cells in dermal infiltrates. These findings indicate that CXCL10 plays a central role in the pathogenesis of skin aGVHD by the recruitment of CXCR3(+) T cells to the sites of inflammation.

Reduced-intensity conditioning for allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplantation in relapsed and refractory Hodgkin lymphoma: impact of alemtuzumab and donor lymphocyte infusions on long-term outcomes.

The introduction of reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC) has enabled the role of allogeneic transplantation to be re-evaluated in Hodgkin lymphoma (HL). While T-cell depletion reduces graft-versus-host disease (GvHD), it potentially abrogates graft-versus-tumour activity and increases infective complications. We compared the results in 67 sibling donor transplantations following RIC in multiply relapsed patients from two national phase II studies conditioned with fludarabine/melphalan. One used cyclosporine/alemtuzumab (MF-A, n = 31), the other used cyclosporine/methotrexate (MF, n = 36) as GvHD prophylaxis. There was a small excess of chemorefractory cases in the MF cohort (P = NS). MF-A resulted in significantly lower incidences of non-relapse mortality, acute and chronic GvHD, but no significant excess of relapse/progression. Post donor lymphocyte infusion (DLI) disease responses occurred in 8/14 (57%) and 6/11 (55%) patients in the MF-A and MF groups, respectively. Current progression-free survival (CPFS) was superior with MF-A (univariate analysis), with durable responses to DLI contributing to the favourable outcome (43% vs. 25%, P = 0.0356). Disease status at transplantation significantly influenced overall survival (P = 0.0038) and CPFS (P = 0.0014), retaining significance in multivariate analyses, which demonstrated a trend towards improved CPFS with T-cell depletion (P = 0.0939). These data suggest that alemtuzumab significantly reduced GvHD without resulting in a deleterious impact on survival outcomes following RIC in HL, and that durable responses to DLI may be more common following the inclusion of alemtuzumab in the conditioning protocol.

The clinical outcome and toxicity of high-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation in patients with myeloma or amyloid and severe renal impairment: a British Society of Blood and Marrow Transplantation study.

The outcome of high-dose chemotherapy (HDT) was evaluated retrospectively in 27 patients with myeloma and four patients with AL amyloidosis with severe renal impairment. Twenty-three patients were receiving dialysis and the rest had a creatinine clearance of <20 ml/min. The median melphalan dose was 140 mg/m2 (range: 60-200 mg/m2), but 10 patients (37%) received 200 mg/m2. Myeloid and platelet engraftment were similar to that seen in patients without renal failure. Five of 27 patients died of transplant-related toxicity before the day 100. Twenty of 27 patients had a response (70%). The median time to disease progression was 32 months (range: 6-54 months) and the median time to best response was 6.5 months. Four of 17 evaluable patients (24%) became dialysis-independent at a median of 5 months post-HDT/stem cell transplantation. At a median follow-up of 70 months, 7/23 patients with myeloma were alive but three of these seven patients had progressive disease. Two of the four patients with amyloidosis have survived. HDT is feasible in these patients and results in 5-year survival in about one-third of patients.

Donor KIR genotype has a major influence on the rate of cytomegalovirus reactivation following T-cell replete stem cell transplantation.

Reactivation of cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common complication following allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Genetic determinants in the host and donor that may influence the rate of reactivation are currently unknown. Viral replication is controlled by T cells and natural killer (NK) cells and these share expression of killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs). We analyzed whether activatory KIRs carried by the donor influenced the subsequent rate of CMV reactivation in the patient. In transplantations involving siblings where both donor and recipient were CMV seropositive, donors with more than one activating KIR gene were associated with a 65% reduction in CMV reactivation. Multivariate analysis confirmed a significantly reduced risk of CMV reactivation in sibling transplantations where the donor had more than one activating KIR. Reduced-intensity transplantation and graft-versus-host disease grade 2 or higher were associated with an increased risk of CMV reactivation. This observation indicates that activating KIRs play an important role in the cellular control of CMV reactivation.

Allogeneic stem-cell transplantation using a reduced-intensity conditioning regimen has the capacity to produce durable remissions and long-term disease-free survival in patients with high-risk acute myeloid leukemia and myelodysplasia.

PURPOSE: The toxicity of allogeneic stem-cell transplantation can be substantially reduced using a reduced-intensity conditioning (RIC) regimen. This has increased the proportion of patients with myeloid malignancies eligible for allogeneic transplantation. However, the capacity of RIC allografts to produce durable remissions in patients with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and myelodysplasia (MDS) has not yet been defined, and consequently, the role of RIC allografts in the management of these diseases remains conjectural. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Seventy-six patients with high-risk AML or MDS received an allograft using a fludarabine/melphalan RIC regimen incorporating alemtuzumab. The median age of the cohort was 52 years (range, 18 to 71 years). RESULTS: The 100-day transplantation-related mortality rate was 9%, and no patient developed greater than grade 2 graft-versus-host disease. With a median follow-up of 36 months (range, 13 to 70 months), 27 patients were alive and in remission, with 3-year actuarial overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) rates of 41% and 37%, respectively. The 3-year OS and DFS rates of patients with AML in complete remission at the time of transplantation were 48% and 42%, respectively. Disease relapse was the most common cause of treatment failure and occurred at a median time of 6 months after transplantation. All but one patient destined to relapse did so within 24 months of transplantation. CONCLUSION: The extended follow-up in this series identifies a high risk of early disease relapse but provides evidence that RIC allografts can produce sustained DFS in a significant number of patients with AML who would be ineligible for allogeneic transplantation with myeloablative conditioning.

Adoptive transfer of cytomegalovirus-specific CTL to stem cell transplant patients after selection by HLA-peptide tetramers.

Stem cell transplantation is used widely in the management of a range of diseases of the hemopoietic system. Patients are immunosuppressed profoundly in the early posttransplant period, and reactivation of cytomegalovirus (CMV) remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Adoptive transfer of donor-derived CMV-specific CD8+ T cell clones has been shown to reduce the rate of viral reactivation; however, the complexity of this approach severely limits its clinical application. We have purified CMV-specific CD8+ T cells from the blood of stem cell transplant donors using staining with HLA-peptide tetramers followed by selection with magnetic beads. CMV-specific CD8+ cells were infused directly into nine patients within 4 h of selection. Median cell dosage was 8.6 x 10(3)/kg with a purity of 98% of all T cells. CMV-specific CD8+ T cells became detectable in all patients within 10 d of infusion, and TCR clonotype analysis showed persistence of infused cells in two patients studied. CMV viremia was reduced in every case and eight patients cleared the infection, including one patient who had a prolonged history of CMV infection that was refractory to antiviral therapy. This novel approach to adoptive transfer has considerable potential for antigen-specific T cell therapy.

Clinical evidence of a graft-versus-Hodgkin's-lymphoma effect after reduced-intensity allogeneic transplantation.

BACKGROUND: In patients with multiply relapsed Hodgkin's lymphoma allogeneic stem-cell transplantation has been limited by prohibitive non-relapse-related mortality rates and by a lack of definitive evidence for a therapeutic graft-versus-tumour effect. Therefore, we aimed to assess the graft-versus-tumour effect of reduced-intensity allogeneic transplantation. METHODS: We undertook reduced-intensity transplantation in 49 patients with multiply relapsed Hodgkin's lymphoma, 44 (90%) of whom had progression of disease after previous autologous transplantation (median age 32 years [range 18-51], number of previous treatment courses was five [range 3-8], and time from diagnosis 4.8 years [range 0.6-4.8]). 31 patients had HLA matched donors who were related and 18 had donors who were unrelated. Median follow-up was 967 days (range 102-2232). The primary endpoints were engraftment, toxic effects, non-relapse-related mortality, incidence of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), and the toxic effects of adjuvant donor-lymphocyte infusion. FINDINGS: All patients engrafted. Eight of 49 (16%) had grade II-IV acute GVHD and seven (14%) had chronic GVHD before donor-lymphocyte infusion. 16 (33%) patients received donor-lymphocyte infusion from 3 months after transplantation for residual disease or progression. Six (38%) of the 16 developed grade II-IV acute GVHD and five developed chronic GVHD. Nine (56%) showed disease responses after infusion (eight complete, one partial). Non-relapse-related mortality was 16.3% at 730 days (7.2% for patients who had related donors vs 34.1% for those with unrelated donors, p=0.0206). Projected 4 year overall and progression-free survival were 55.7% and 39.0%, respectively (62.0% and 41.5% for related donors). INTERPRETATION: These data show the potential for durable responses in patients who have previously had substantial treatment for Hodgkin's lymphoma. The low non-relapse-related mortality suggests the procedure could be undertaken earlier in the course of the disease.

Chronic graft-versus-host disease is associated with increased numbers of peripheral blood CD4+CD25high regulatory T cells.

Chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) is characterized by a state of profound immunodeficiency in association with alloreactive and autoimmune phenomena. These observations indicate an impairment of immunologic tolerance that could involve both central and peripheral mechanisms. Defective thymic function may contribute to dysregulation of central tolerance, but few studies have addressed peripheral tolerance. Recently a population of CD4+CD25+ T cells (Treg cells) has been characterized, which controls immunologic reactivity in vivo and which on transfer can prevent experimental acute GVHD. We investigated the number and function of peripheral blood CD4+CD25high T cells in patients more than 100 days after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Patients with cGVHD had markedly elevated numbers of CD4+CD25high T cells as compared to patients without GVHD. CD4+CD25high T cells derived from patients in both groups were of donor origin, lacked markers of recent activation, and expressed intracellular CD152. In contrast to controls, CD4+CD25high T cells derived from patients with cGVHD were characterized by lower surface CD62L expression. In vitro, CD4+CD25high T cells were hyporesponsive to polyclonal stimulation and suppressed the proliferation and cytokine synthesis of CD4+CD25- cells, an effect that was independent of interleukin 10. These results indicate that chronic graft-versus-host injury does not occur as a result of Treg cell deficiency.

The impact of donor KIR and patient HLA-C genotypes on outcome following HLA-identical sibling hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for myeloid leukemia.

Killer immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIRs) regulate cell activity of natural killer (NK) cells and some T cells. The predominant ligand for inhibitory KIRs is HLA-C, which subdivides into 2 groups based on the specificity of inhibitory KIRs. The ligands for activatory KIRs are unknown. Following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), recipient tissues may not express a ligand for KIRs present within the graft, and the combination of donor KIR and recipient HLA-C types could influence outcome. HLA and KIR genotypes were determined in 220 donor-recipient pairs from HLA-matched sibling HSCTs performed for myeloid (n = 112) and lymphoid (n = 108) diseases. In HSCTs performed for myeloid disease, overall survival was worse in patients homozygous for group 2 HLA-C (C2) than in patients who carried a group 1 HLA-C (C1) allele (P <.005). Moreover, this effect is seen only when the donor additionally carries the activating KIR gene KIR2DS2 (P =.045). No effect was seen in patients with lymphoid disease. Thus, in HLA-matched sibling HSCT for myeloid leukemia, patients homozygous for C2 alleles receiving a graft from a donor carrying the KIR gene KIR2DS2 have a significantly reduced chance of survival.

Origin and subset distribution of peripheral blood dendritic cells in patients with chronic graft-versus-host disease.

BACKGROUND: After allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, donor T cells interact with an antigen-presenting cell environment that is distorted in number, level of activation, and origin. The role of antigen presentation in the development of chronic graft-versus host disease (cGVHD) is unknown. METHODS: The number and origin of peripheral blood immature myeloid (CD19- CD1c+) and plasmacytoid (BDCA-2+) dendritic cells (DCs) was determined in 30 patients at more than 100 days after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. RESULTS: Patients with cGVHD had significantly higher plasmacytoid DC numbers than individuals without this complication (9.1+/-2.0 x 10(6)/L versus 3.8+/-0.6 x 10(6)/L, =0.025). Chimerism studies demonstrated that DCs in patients with cGVHD were exclusively of donor origin, whereas persistence of host DCs was observed in some control patients. CONCLUSIONS: The antigen-presenting cell environment in patients with cGVHD, as represented by immature blood DCs, is of donor origin but distorted in terms of subset distribution.

High incidence of cytomegalovirus infection after nonmyeloablative stem cell transplantation: potential role of Campath-1H in delaying immune reconstitution.

Nonmyeloablative conditioning is increasingly used for transplantation in a wide range of diseases, but little is known about its impact on the incidence of infections and immune reconstitution. We examined the pattern and outcome of cytomegalovirus (CMV) infections monitored by polymerase chain reaction-based assays and treated preemptively in 101 patients following nonmyeloablative conditioning containing in vivo Campath-1H. Fifty-one patients (50%) had a CMV infection at a median of 27 days after transplantation with a probability of 84.8% in patients at risk of CMV infection. The probability of recurrence of CMV infection before and after 100 days was 53.6% and 46.6%, respectively, and was more common in unrelated donor transplant recipients. All 3 patients who developed CMV disease died of this complication. The 2 patients with late CMV disease had grade III to IV graft-versus-host-disease (GVHD), which occurred de novo in only 4% of patients and in another 10% following donor lymphocyte infusions. The median time to CD4(+) T-cell count more than 200/microL was 9 months in the 48 patients studied. The probabilities of overall survival and nonrelapse mortality at 18 months were 65% and 27.8%, respectively, with no significant difference in survival between CMV-infected and -uninfected patients. The use of Campath-1H appeared to be associated with a low incidence of GVHD but a high incidence of CMV infections and prolonged immune paresis.

Limiting transplantation-related mortality following unrelated donor stem cell transplantation by using a nonmyeloablative conditioning regimen.

A nonmyeloablative conditioning regimen was investigated in 47 patients with hematological malignancy receiving allogeneic progenitor cells from matched, unrelated donors. The median patient age was 44 years. The majority of patients had high-risk features, including having failed a prior transplantation (29 individuals). Twenty of the transplants were mismatched for HLA class I and/or class II alleles. Recipient conditioning consisted of 20 mg CAMPATH-1H on days -8 to -4, 30 mg/m(2) fludarabine on days -7 to -3, and 140 mg/m(2) melphalan on day -2. Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) prophylaxis was with cyclosporine A alone. Primary graft failure occurred in only 2 of 44 evaluable patients (4.5%). Chimerism studies in 34 patients indicated that the majority (85.3%) attained initial full donor chimerism. Only 3 patients developed grade III to IV acute GVHD, and no patients have yet developed chronic extensive GVHD. The estimated probability of nonrelapse mortality at day 100 was 14.9% (95% confidence interval [CI], 4.7%-25.1%). With a median follow-up of 344 days (range, 79-830), overall and progression-free survivals at 1 year were 75.5% (95% CI, 62.8%-88.2%) and 61.5% (95% CI, 46.1%-76.8%), respectively. In summary, a nonmyeloablative regimen incorporating in vivo CAMPATH-1H is effective in promoting durable engraftment in most patients and in reducing the risk of severe GVHD following matched unrelated donor transplantation.