Endoparasite Infections in Captive Inland Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps) in Italy.

The inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) is a lizard species commonly kept as a pet worldwide. Endoparasites are among the most important pathogens affecting bearded dragons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the endoparasites in captive P. vitticeps in Italy. Faecal samples from 30 P. vitticeps were analysed by fresh faecal smears, flotation tests, the Mini-FLOTAC technique, and a rapid immunoassay to detect Cryptosporidium spp. To search for microsporidia, PCR and sequencing were performed on the faecal samples. Data were statistically analysed. The overall positivity rate for endoparasites was 83.3% (25/30). The identified endoparasites were oxyurids (17/30, 56.7%), Isosospora amphiboluri (13/30, 43.3%), Encephalitozoon pogonae (4/18, 22.22%), and Cryptosporidium sp. (1/30, 3.33%). The positivity for protozoa was significantly higher in juveniles compared to adults. Moreover, the frequency of clinical signs was significantly higher in the positive animals. The results obtained here emphasize the importance of regular veterinary examinations of captive P. vitticeps, aimed at the diagnosis, treatment, and control of endoparasites. This study is one of the largest surveys on microsporidia infections in living bearded dragons, suggesting that E. pogonae may be widespread in this lizard.

Cancerogenic parasites in veterinary medicine: a narrative literature review.

Parasite infection is one of the many environmental factors that can significantly contribute to carcinogenesis and is already known to be associated with a variety of malignancies in both human and veterinary medicine. However, the actual number of cancerogenic parasites and their relationship to tumor development is far from being fully understood, especially in veterinary medicine. Thus, the aim of this review is to investigate parasite-related cancers in domestic and wild animals and their burden in veterinary oncology. Spontaneous neoplasia with ascertained or putative parasite etiology in domestic and wild animals will be reviewed, and the multifarious mechanisms of protozoan and metazoan cancer induction will be discussed.

Mycotic Diseases in Chelonians.

Turtles and 'tortoises' populations are declining in number, the factors driving extinction risks being related to habitat loss and degradation, climate change, introduction of invasive plant and animal species, consumption by humans for food and medicinal use, and collection for international pet trade. Fungal infections represent one of the main threats for ecosystem health. The present narrative review deals with conventional and emerging mycoses of Chelonians. Although conventional mycoses in captive and pet reptiles would depend on poor husbandry, being the agents mostly opportunistic pathogens, some fungal species were reported to occur more frequently, such as the entomopathogen Purpureocillium lilacinum. Furthermore, emerging agents such as the Fusarium solani species complex have been recognized as a real threat for the surviving of some aquatic species, acting as primary pathogens. This complex has been recently included within pathogens in One Health issues. Emydomyces testavorans is recognized as an emerging threat, although, due its recent identification, information about its epidemiology is limited. Data about treatments and outcomes of mycoses in Chelonians are also referred.

Arthropod-Borne Pathogens in Wild Canids.

Wild canids, as well as other wild animal species, are largely exposed to bites by ticks and other hematophagous vectors where the features favoring their presence and spread are found in wooded and semi-wooded areas. Much of the information about arthropod-borne infections concerns domestic and companion animals, whereas data about these infections in wild canids are not exhaustive. The present study is a narrative review of the literature concerning vector-borne infections in wild canids, highlighting their role in the epidemiology of arthropod-borne bacteria and protozoa.

In Vitro Antimicrobial Activity of Thymus vulgaris, Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana and Their Mixture against Clinical Isolates Responsible for Canine Otitis Externa.

Otitis externa is a frequent inflammation among dogs, mainly caused by bacteria and yeasts that are often resistant to conventional drugs. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the in vitro antibacterial and antifungal activities of commercial essential oils (EOs) from Origanum vulgare, Satureja montana, and Thymus vulgaris, as well as a mixture of these three components, against 47 clinical bacterial strains (Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Serratia marcescens) and 5 Malassezia pachydermatis strains, previously cultured from the ears of dogs affected by otitis externa. The tested Gram-positive bacteria were sensible to the analysed EOs with MICs ranging from 1.25% (v/v) to <0.0195% (v/v); Gram-negative isolates, mainly P. aeruginosa, were less sensitive with MICs from >10% (v/v) to 0.039% (v/v). M. pachydermatis isolates were sensitive to all EOs with MICs from 4.25% (v/v) to 2% (v/v). However, the mixture was active against all bacterial (except one P. aeruginosa strain) and fungal tested isolates. The three EOs and their mixture seem to be an interesting alternative for treating canine otitis externa when conventional antimicrobials are not active.

Bacterial, Fungal, and Parasitic Zoonoses.

Zoonoses encompass several bacterial, parasitic, and mycotic diseases of domestic and free-living animals [...].

Essential Oils against Sarcoptes scabiei.

Herbal remedia are widely employed in folk medicine, and have been more and more often studied and considered in the treatment of several infections. Sarcoptic mange (scabies, when referring to human patients) is a highly contagious skin disease caused by Sarcoptes scabiei (sarcoptiformes, Sarcoptinae), an astigmatid mite which burrows into the epidermis, actively penetrating the stratum corneum. This parasitosis negatively affects livestock productions and represents a constraint on animal and human health. The treatment relies on permethrine and ivermectine but, since these molecules do not have ovicidal action, more than a single dose should be administered. Toxicity, the possible onset of parasite resistance, the presence of residues in meat and other animal products and environmental contamination are the major constraints. These shortcomings could be reduced by the use of plant extracts that have been in vitro or in vivo checked against these mites, sometimes with promising results. The aim of the present study was to review the literature dealing with the treatment of both scabies and sarcoptic mange by plant-derived agents, notably essential oils.

Retrospective Molecular Survey on Bacterial and Protozoan Abortive Agents in Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) from Central Italy

Bacterial and protozoan agents can determine abortion and other reproductive disorders in domestic ruminants, but data regarding their occurrence in wild ruminants are scanty worldwide, including in Italy. The aim of this retrospective study was to verify the occurrence of the main bacterial and protozoan abortive agents in 72 spleen samples previously collected from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) living in mountain areas of Central Italy. All samples were collected and submitted to DNA extraction for other investigations. Molecular analyses were carried out on the DNA samples to detect Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii, Salmonella enterica, Listeria monocytogenes, Neospora caninum, and Toxoplasma gondii. Three (4.16%) roe deer resulted PCR positive for C. burnetii and one (1.38%) for T. gondii. These findings suggest that roe deer living in the investigated areas do not act as important reservoirs of the searched agents. However, the tested animals lived in a closed area without contact with domestic animals that are usually involved in the epidemiology of the investigated pathogens. Monitoring of wild ruminants is pivotal to verify changes in the epidemiological scenario from a One Health perspective, too.

Toxoplasmosis in Captive Ring-Tailed Lemurs (Lemur catta).

Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most common protozoan parasites and is widely present in all warm-blooded animals. Although clinical disease is uncommon, some species, including ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta), have been found to develop acute and lethal toxoplasmosis. The aim of this study was to describe the pathologic, immunohistochemical, serological, and molecular findings of an outbreak of fatal toxoplasmosis in three captive ring-tailed lemurs in Central Italy in 2009. The animals died acutely within few days. The necropsy was immediately performed; necrotic lesions in the spleen, liver, and kidney, as well as interstitial pneumonia, were found histologically. All animals had high titers of anti-T. gondii-specific antibodies (1:1280 IgM and 1:640 IgG) according to a modified agglutination test (MAT) and immunohistochemistry showed scattered tachyzoites in the target organs. Diagnosis was confirmed by PCR and clonal type II was identified. In addition, the seven co-habiting lemurs were seronegative. This paper reports the first outbreak of acute disseminated toxoplasmosis in captive ring-tailed lemurs in Italy. These findings confirm the high susceptibility of this endangered species to toxoplasma infection, which may be considered a further threat to captive population viability.

Occurrence of Bacterial and Protozoan Pathogens in Red Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Central Italy.

Most surveys of pathogens in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) have focused on particular agents. The aim of this study was to verify, with bacteriological and molecular analyses, the occurrence of the main bacterial and protozoan pathogens that are able to infect canids, in red foxes regularly hunted in Central Italy. Spleen, brain, kidney and fecal samples from red foxes were submitted to bacteriological and/or molecular analyses to detect Salmonella spp., Yersinia spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Brucella spp., Ehrlichia canis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Coxiella burnetii, Leptospira spp., Neospora caninum, Hepatozoon canis, Babesia spp. and microsporidia. Two (9.1%) strains of Yersinia enterocolitica biotype 1 and 2 (9.1%) of Yersinia frederiksenii were isolated from 22 fecal samples. Among the 22 spleen samples, seven (31.8%) were PCR-positive for H. canis and 3 (13.6%) for Babesia vulpes. Kidneys from two (2.9%) foxes, among 71 tested, were PCR-positive for L. interrogans. Even though the analyses were carried out on a small number of animals, the results suggested that red foxes from the selected geographic area may act as reservoirs of some investigated pathogens.

Molecular survey on the presence of arthropod-borne bacteria and protozoans in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and ticks from Central Italy.

Environmental changes, due to climatic emergency and to anthropogenic activities severely impact on the epidemiology of vector borne diseases, mostly when transmitted by ticks. The data about the distribution of microorganisms responsible for them in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) population living in Italy are scanty and completely lacking in Tuscany, so a molecular survey was carried out to estimate the prevalence of some zoonotic tick-borne pathogens in roe deer, and ticks removed from them, living in areas of Central Italy with high risk of arthropod exposure. Spleen samples from 72 roe deer were tested by PCR for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Francisella tularensis and piroplasms. Moreover, 345 ticks were removed from 65 roe deer, morphologically or molecularly identified and grouped into 162 pools that were submitted to PCR for detecting the same pathogens. Forty-six (63.88%) roe deer were positive for at least one investigated pathogen: 43 (59.72%) for A. phagocytophilum, 2 (2.78%) for Babesia capreoli, 1 (1.39%) for B. burgdorferi, and 1 (1.39%) for Babesia sp. No animals were PCR positive for F. tularensis.  All ticks were identified as Ixodes ricinus. Seventy-six (46.91%) tick pools showed DNA of one or more pathogens: 66 (40.74%) were positive for A. phagocytophilum, 22 (13.58%) for B. burgodorferi s.l., 6 (3.70%) for B. venatorum and 3 (1.85%) for B. capreoli. No pools were positive for F. tularensis. Two or three pathogens were detected in 23 (14.19%) pools.

Potential Role of Birds in the Epidemiology of Coxiella burnetii, Coxiella-like Agents and Hepatozoon spp.

Birds may be involved in the epidemiology of infectious and/or parasitic diseases which affect mammals, including humans. Q fever, caused by Coxiella burnetii, is an important zoonosis causing economic losses mainly due to pathologies induced in ruminants. Even though birds are known to be potential reservoirs of C. burnetii, their role in the epidemiological cycle of the pathogen is not completely verified. In recent years, new bacteria identified as Coxiella-like agents, have been detected in birds affected by different pathologies; the potential role of these bacteria as pathogens for mammals is not currently known. Hepatozoon spp. are haemoprotozoa, causing arthropod borne affections within several vertebrate classes. The infection of vertebrate host develops after ingestion of the arthropod final hosts containing oocysts; different tissues and blood cells are then colonized by other parasite stages, such as merozoites and gamonts. In avian hosts, there are several recognized Hepatozoon species; however, their life cycle and pathogenicity have not been fully elucidated. Referring to a carrier role by avian species and their ticks in the epidemiology of canine hepatozoonosis, the only clinically relevant affection caused by this parasite genus, they would act as carriers of infected ticks and, when Hepatozoon americanum is involved, as paratenic hosts, as well.

A Review on Alaria alata, Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis spp. in Mammalian Game Meat Consumed in Europe: Epidemiology, Risk Management and Future Directions.

Game meat is increasingly appreciated and consumed in Europe, also due to the growing population of wild ungulates. In addition to interesting nutritional properties and market opportunities, game meat is characterized by some specific public health issues. This review focuses on the etiology, epidemiology, public health aspects and risk management along the supply chain, including parasite detection at slaughtering and inactivation in meat, of three selected foodborne parasitic hazards (Alaria alata, Toxoplasma gondii and Sarcocystis spp.) in the main mammalian game meat species in the EU: wild boar (Sus scrofa), red deer (Cervus elaphus), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fallow deer (Dama dama), Alpine chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), moose (Alces alces), hare (Lepus europaeus) and wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). The presented data point out the main issues, and knowledge gaps as well as the potential for improved control in order to contribute to the risk analysis process. To pursue an effective management of these parasitic zoonoses, awareness raising should involve all figures in the supply chain, including hunters, restaurateurs and consumers. Human behaviour and the lack of knowledge regarding meat borne parasitic zoonoses and the health risks they pose seem to be the most important factors responsible for human infections. However, detection methods, starting from the sampling procedure, should be further developed and standardized in order to improve the collection of accurate and up-to-date epidemiological data.

In vitro antimicrobial activity of selected essential oils against bacteria and yeasts isolated from the genital tract of mares.

The aim of the present study, the first to test clinical equine isolates, was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of commercial essential oils (EOs) obtained from Origanum vulgare, Thymus vulgaris, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cymbopogon citratus, Aloysia triphylla and Syzygium aromaticum against Streptococcus spp., Staphylococcus spp., Candida albicans and Rhodotorula spp. previously isolated from uteri of mares with reproductive disorders. T. vulgaris showed the best antibacterial activity against all the selected agents, with MICs ranging from 0.07 mg/mL for S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus to 0.29 mg/mL versus Streptococcus sp. and Staphylococcus spp. isolates and versus C. albicans and Rhodotorula spp., with MICs of 0.46 mg/mL and 1.86 mg/mL, respectively. O. vulgare, S. aromaticum, C. zeylanicum EOs showed good antibacterial activity with MICs ranging from 0.07 mg/mL to 0.29 mg/mL, 0.16 mg/mL to 0.32 mg/mL, 0.07 mg/mL to 0.63 mg/mL, respectively; A. triphylla was the most active EO against Rhodotorula spp. (0.43 mg/mL).

Potential Role of Avian Populations in the Epidemiology of Rickettsia spp. and Babesia spp.

Birds often are carriers of hard and/or soft ticks harboring pathogens of humans and veterinary concern. Migratory avian species, which cover long distance by their flight, may deeply influence the ticks' distribution worldwide; in particular, they can introduce in a given geographic area new tick species and related tick-borne pathogens. Studies about the detection of tick-borne agents in birds are not numerous, whereas more attention has been turned to the presence of these microorganisms in ticks carried by birds. The present review focused on the role of avian populations in the epidemiology of rickettsioses and babesioses, which represent two severe problems for the health of humans and other mammals.

Survey of Keratinophilic Fungi from Feathers of Birds in Tuscany.

Although keratinophilic fungi on avian feathers have been widely described, data from European literature are quite lacking regarding Mediterranean countries. The aim of the present study was therefore to evaluate the occurrence of fungal species on feathers of different avian species in Italy. A total of 378 feather samples from both aquatic (n = 254) and terrestrial birds (n = 124), for a total of 30 bird species, were cultured for keratinophilic fungi. Fungal isolates were recognized by their macro- and micro-scopical morphology, and results were corroborated by PCR and sequencing. Keratinophilic fungi belonging to 11 different species (Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Chrysosporium keratinophilum, Trichophyton terrestre, Microsporum gypseum, Sepedonium sp., Chrysosporium pannorum, Myriodontium sp., Chrysosporium tropicum, Chrysosporium pruinosum, Chrysosporium luteum and Aphanoascus fulvescens) were isolated from 71 animals (18.8%). The frequency of isolation of keratinophilic species from terrestrial birds was significantly higher in waterfowl. Migratory birds in Italy have been proven to carry pathogenic fungi such as dermatophytes, (A. platyrhyncos, A. crecca, E. rubecula), besides saprophytic species.

Tear Production, Intraocular Pressure, Ultrasound Biometric Features and Conjunctival Flora Identification in Clinically Normal Eyes of Two Italian Breeds of Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus).

Given the abundance of chickens in Italy, it is important for veterinarians to know the normal state of chickens' eyes in order to identify any ophthalmic pathological changes. The aim of this study was to determine the normal values of select ocular parameters and to evaluate conjunctival microflora in two Italian chicken breeds. Sixty-six healthy chickens underwent a complete ophthalmic examination, which included a phenol red thread test (PRTT) for the evaluation of tear production and the assessment of intraocular pressure by rebound tonometry. B-mode ultrasound biometric measurements and conjunctival microflora identification were also performed in twenty-seven chickens. Mean PRTT was 23.77 ± 2.99 mm/15 s in the Livorno breed and 19.95 ± 2.81 mm/15 s in the Siciliana breed. Mean intraocular pressure was 14.3 ± 1.17 mmHg in the Livorno breed and 14.06 ± 1.15 mmHg in the Siciliana breed. Reference ranges for morphometric parameters were reported in the two breeds. Twenty-three chickens (85.18%) were bacteriologically positive. Chlamydia spp. antigen was detected in 14.81% of chickens. No positive cultures were obtained for fungi. Normal reference range values for selected ophthalmic parameters were obtained in clinically healthy chickens, which could facilitate accurate diagnosis and better management of ophthalmic diseases in these animals.

Survey on the Presence of Bacterial and Parasitic Zoonotic Agents in the Feces of Wild Birds.

Wild avifauna may act as fecal source of bacterial and parasitic pathogens for other birds and mammals. Most of these pathogens have a relevant impact on human and livestock health which may cause severe disease and economic loss. In the present study, the fecal samples collected from 121 wild birds belonging to 15 species of the genera Anas, Tadorna, Fulica, Arddea, Larus, Falco, Athene, Accipiter, and Columba were submitted to bacteriological and molecular analyses to detect Brucella spp., Coxiella burnetii, Mycobacterium spp., Salmonella spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., and microsporidia. Four (3.3%) animals were positive for one pathogen: one Anas penelope for C. burnetii, one Larus michahellis for S. enterica serovar Coeln, and two Columba livia for Encephalitozoon hellem. Although the prevalence rates found in the present survey were quite low, the obtained results confirm that wild birds would be the a potential fecal source of bacterial and parasitic zoonotic pathogens which sometimes can also represent a severe threat for farm animals.

Antimicrobial Activity and Composition of Five Rosmarinus (Now Salvia spp. and Varieties) Essential Oils.

Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. and Salvia jordanii J.B.Walker are aromatic evergreen shrubs belonging to the Lamiaceae family. Their aerial parts have been used since ancient times as natural preservatives. The present study reported the investigation of the chemical profile and the extraction yield of the essential oils (EOs) obtained from the dried aerial parts of four cultivars of Salvia rosmarinus ('Boule'; 'Vicomte de Noailles'; 'Gorizia'; 'Joyce de Baggio') and the species S. jordanii, together with their antibacterial and antifungal activities. The phytochemical investigation evidenced a predominance of oxygenated monoterpenes in all the samples (57.5-77.1%), except in 'Boule', in which the hydrocarbon form prevailed (50.2%). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the matrix taxa × compounds showed that nine compounds have a significant discriminating function between the samples. 'Vicomte de Noailles' was characterized by high amounts of camphor and 14-hydroxy-9-epi-(E)-caryophyllene, while 'Gorizia' and Jord differed in their predominance of camphene, borneol, bornyl acetate, and α-humulene. Lastly, 'Boule' and 'Joyce de Baggio' segregated separately and were characterized by high amounts of α-pinene, myrcene, and verbenone. The selected EOs presented a moderate antibacterial activity on the tested bacterial strains and resulted not active on the tested yeast species.