ATM directs DNA damage responses and proteostasis via genetically separable pathways.

The protein kinase ATM is a master regulator of the DNA damage response but also responds directly to oxidative stress. Loss of ATM causes ataxia telangiectasia, a neurodegenerative disorder with pleiotropic symptoms that include cerebellar dysfunction, cancer, diabetes, and premature aging. We genetically separated the activation of ATM by DNA damage from that by oxidative stress using separation-of-function mutations. We found that deficient activation of ATM by the Mre11-Rad50-Nbs1 complex and DNA double-strand breaks resulted in loss of cell viability, checkpoint activation, and DNA end resection in response to DNA damage. In contrast, loss of oxidative activation of ATM had minimal effects on DNA damage-related outcomes but blocked ATM-mediated initiation of checkpoint responses after oxidative stress and resulted in deficiencies in mitochondrial function and autophagy. In addition, expression of a variant ATM incapable of activation by oxidative stress resulted in widespread protein aggregation. These results indicate a direct relationship between the mechanism of ATM activation and its effects on cellular metabolism and DNA damage responses in human cells and implicate ATM in the control of protein homeostasis.

Ataxia telangiectasia-mutated (ATM) kinase activity is regulated by ATP-driven conformational changes in the Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1 (MRN) complex.

The Ataxia Telangiectasia-Mutated (ATM) protein kinase is recruited to sites of double-strand DNA breaks by the Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1 (MRN) complex, which also facilitates ATM monomerization and activation. MRN exists in at least two distinct conformational states, dependent on ATP binding and hydrolysis by the Rad50 protein. Here we use an ATP analog-sensitive form of ATM to determine that ATP binding, but not hydrolysis, by Rad50 is essential for MRN stimulation of ATM. Mre11 nuclease activity is dispensable, although some mutations in the Mre11 catalytic domain block ATM activation independent of nuclease function, as does the mirin compound. The coiled-coil domains of Rad50 are important for the DNA binding ability of MRN and are essential for ATM activation, but loss of the zinc hook connection can be substituted by higher levels of the complex. Nbs1 binds to the "closed" form of the MR complex, promoted by the zinc hook and by ATP binding. Thus the primary role of the hook is to tether Rad50 monomers together, promoting the association of the Rad50 catalytic domains into a form that binds ATP and also binds Nbs1. Collectively, these results show that the ATP-bound form of MRN is the critical conformation for ATM activation.

Cell treatment and lysis in 96-well filter-bottom plates for screening Bcr-Abl activity and inhibition in whole-cell extracts.

Although conventional high-throughput screens performed in vitro with purified protein kinases are powerful tools to discover new kinase inhibitors, they are far from ideal for determining efficacy in vivo. As a complementary approach, cell-based, target-driven secondary screens may help predict in vivo compound potency and specificity as well as evaluate bioavailability and toxicity. Here the authors report a simple protocol for treating K562 Bcr-Abl-expressing cells with small-molecule kinase inhibitors in 96-well filter-bottom plates followed by in-plate cell lysis. The lysates were assayed via a solid-phase kinase assay, allowing determination of apparent IC(50) for known Bcr-Abl inhibitors as well as facilitating the screening of a small kinase inhibitor library. This approach may have further applications in generating lysates for analyzing kinase activity and inhibition in other nonadherent suspension cell lines.

A rationally designed histone deacetylase inhibitor with distinct antitumor activity against ovarian cancer.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACIs) are a class of antineoplastic agents previously demonstrating preclinical chemosensitizing activity against drug-resistant cancer cells and mouse xenografts. However, whereas clinical studies have shown efficacy against human hematologic malignancies, solid tumor trials have proved disappointing. We previously developed a novel HDACI, "OSU-HDAC42," and herein examine its activity against ovarian cancer cell lines and xenografts. OSU-HDAC42, (i) unlike most HDACIs, elicited a more than five-fold increase in G(2)-phase cells, at 2.5 microM, with G(2) arrest followed by apoptosis; (ii) at 1.0 microM, completely repressed messenger RNA expression of the cell cycle progression gene cdc2; (iii) at low doses (0.25-1.0 microM for 24 hours), induced tumor cell epithelial differentiation, as evidenced by morphology changes and a more than five-fold up-regulation of epithelium-specific cytokeratins; (iv) potently abrogated the growth of numerous ovarian cancer cells, with IC(50) values of 0.5 to 1.0 microM, whereas also remaining eight-fold less toxic (IC(50) of 8.6 microM) to normal ovarian surface epithelial cells; and (v) chemosensitizated platinum-resistant mouse xenografts to cisplatin. Compared with the clinically approved HDACI suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (vorinostat), 1.0 microM OSU-HDAC42 was more biochemically potent (i.e., enzyme-inhibitory), as suggested by greater gene up-regulation and acetylation of both histone and nonhistone proteins. In p53-dysfunctional cells, however, OSU-HDAC42 was two- to eight-fold less inductive of p53-regulated genes, whereas also having a two-fold higher IC(50) than p53-functional cells, demonstrating some interaction with p53 tumor-suppressive cascades. These findings establish OSU-HDAC42 as a promising therapeutic agent for drug-resistant ovarian cancer and justify its further investigation.

A solid-phase Bcr-Abl kinase assay in 96-well hydrogel plates.

Regulated phosphorylation by protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs), such as c-Abl, is critical to cellular homeostasis. In turn, once deregulated as in the chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) fusion protein Bcr-Abl, PTKs can promote cancer onset and progression. The dramatic success of the Bcr-Abl inhibitor imatinib as therapy for CML has inspired interest in other PTKs as targets for cancer drug discovery. Here we report a novel PTK activity and inhibition screening method using hydrogel-immobilized peptide substrates. Using acrylate crosslinkers, we tether peptides via terminal cysteines to thiol-presenting hydrogels in 96-well plates. These surfaces display low background and high reproducibility, allowing semiquantitative detection of peptide phosphorylation by recombinant c-Abl or by Bcr-Abl activity in cell extracts using traditional anti-phosphotyrosine immunodetection and chemifluorescence. The capabilities of this assay are demonstrated by performing model screens for inhibition with several commercially available PTK inhibitors and a collection of pyridopyrimidine Src/Abl dual inhibitors. This assay provides a practical method to measure the activity of a single kinase present in a whole cell lysate with high sensitivity and specificity as a valuable means for efficient small molecule screening.